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BIOL 1407 > Exam 1 > Flashcards

Exam 1 Flashcards

Ch. 20, 21, 22, 23

1
Q

Evolution

A
  • Descent with modification
  • Genetic change in a population over multiple generations
  • How an entity changes through time
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2
Q

Descent

A

The inheritance of traits

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3
Q

Modification

A

The change in inheritable traits

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4
Q

Genetic Variation

A

The differences in alleles of genes found within individuals in a population

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5
Q

Darwin’s 3 Main Ideas

A
  • Descent with modification explains life’s unity
  • Descent with modification explains life’s diversity
  • Descent with modification explains how organisms are suited to life in their environments
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6
Q

Allele Frequencies

A

frequencies of alleles of a gene from generation to generation

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7
Q

Population Genetics

A

The study of properties of genes in a population

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8
Q

What is the Hardy-Weinberg Principle

A
  • It describes how allele and genotype frequencies in a population remain constant over generations, under certain conditions
  • Provides a baseline expectation for genetic variation in a population, assuming that no evolutionary forces are acting on it
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9
Q

Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium

A
  • Allele frequencies in a population will remain in equilibrium from one generation to the next if the following five conditions are met:

1) No mutation occurs
2) No Gene Flow (No Immigration or Migration occurs)
3) Random mating is occurring
4) The population size is large
5) No natural selection is occurring

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10
Q

5 Agents of Evolutionary Change

A
  • Mutation
  • Gene Flow
  • Genetic Drift
  • Nonrandom mating
  • Natural Selection
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11
Q

Gene Flow

A

The movement of alleles from one population to another

  • Animal physically moves into a new population
  • Drifting of gametes or immature stages of plants or animals into an area
  • Mating of individuals from adjacent populations
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12
Q

Nonrandom Mating

A

Assortative Mating
- Phenotypically similar individuals mate
- Increases the proportion of homozygous individuals

Dissasortative Mating
- Phenotypically different individuals mate
Produces excess of heterozygotes

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13
Q

Genetic Drift

A

Allele frequency may change by chance due to a small population

  • Can lead to loss of alleles in isolated populations and uncommon alleles

Ex. Founder Effect and Bottleneck Effect

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14
Q

Founder Effect

A

One or a few individuals disperse and become the founders of a new isolated population

  • Some alleles are lost and others change in frequency
  • Huge diversity —> Small diversity
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15
Q

Bottleneck Effect

A

A drastic reduction in population size due to a sudden environmental change

  • Results in loss of genetic verity
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16
Q

Fitness

A

The most fit phenotype is the one that produces the greatest number of offspring

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17
Q

Parental Investment

A

The energy and time each sex invests in producing and rearing offspring

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18
Q

Intrasexual Selection

A

Individuals of one sex compete with each other for the opportunity to mate

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19
Q

Intersexual Selection

A

Mate choice

  • When the female gets to choose the mate based off characteristics they want
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20
Q

Secondary Sexual Characteristics

A

Characteristics that attract the opposite sex

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21
Q

Sexual Dimorphism

A

Differences between sexes

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22
Q

Sperm Competition

A

Features that increase the probability that a male’s sperm will fertilize an egg

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23
Q

Sensory Exploitation

A

Evolution in males of a signal that attracts the opposite sex

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24
Q

Frequency-Dependent Selection

A

The fitness of a phenotype depends on its frequency within the population (The success of a trait is not constant; it changes depending on how common or rare it is)

  • fitness (reproductive success) of a phenotype or genotype depends on its frequency relative to other phenotypes or genotypes in the population
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25
Q

Negative Frequency-Dependent Selection

A

When rare phenotypes are favored by selection

  • Rare forms are preyed upon less frequently
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26
Q

Positive Frequency-Dependent Selection

A

When common phenotypes are favored by selection

  • Eliminates variation
  • Oddballs are preyed upon
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27
Q

Oscillating Selection

A

Selection favors one phenotype at one time and another phenotype at another time

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28
Q

Heterozygote Advantage

A

Heterozygotes are favored over homozygotes

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29
Q

Disruptive Selection

A

Acts to eliminate intermediate types (middle ground/medium sized)

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30
Q

Directional Selection

A

Acts to eliminate one extreme (eliminates either big or small/leans towards having more of either one)

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31
Q

Stabilizing Selection

A

Acts to eliminate both extremes (eliminates big and small but not medium individuals)

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32
Q

Constructive Gene Flow

A

Spread beneficial mutation to other populations

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33
Q

Constraining Gene Flow

A

Can impede adaptation by a continual flow of inferior alleles from other populations

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34
Q

Darwin’s Selection Hypothesis

A
  • Phenotypic variation must exist in the population
  • Variation must lead to differences among individuals in lifetime reproductive success
  • Phenotypic variation among individuals must be genetically transmissible to the next generation
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35
Q

Industrial melanism

A

Phenomenon in which darker individuals come to predominate over lighter ones

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36
Q

Artificial Selection

A

The process by which humans intentionally breed plants or animals to promote the occurrence of desirable traits.

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37
Q

Experimental Selection

A

When scientists intentionally apply specific pressures (like environmental changes or selective breeding) on a group of organisms in a controlled setting, such as a lab, to see how their traits change over generations

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38
Q

Agricultural Selection

A

The process by which humans intentionally breed plants and animals to enhance desirable traits for farming

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39
Q

Domestication

A

The process by which humans tame and breed wild animals or cultivate wild plants over many generations to develop traits that are more beneficial or desirable for human use

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40
Q

Fossil

A

The preserved remains of once-living organisms

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41
Q

How are fossils created

A
  • Organism is buried in sediment
  • Calcium in bone/other hard tissue mineralizes
  • Surrounding sediment hardens to form rock
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42
Q

Homologous Structures

A

Structures with different appearances and functions that all derived from the same body part in a common ancestor

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43
Q

Vestigial Structures

A

Have no apparent function, but resemble structures ancestors possessed

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44
Q

Pseudogenes

A

Non-functional sequences of DNA that resemble functional genes but have lost their ability to code for proteins due to mutations

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45
Q

Biogeography

A

Study of the geographic distribution of species

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46
Q

Convergent Evolution

A

The process in which unrelated or distantly related organisms independently evolve similar traits or features due to having to adapt to similar environments or ecological niches

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47
Q

Darwin’s Critics

A

1) Evolution is not solidly demonstrated (just a theory)

2) There are no fossil intermediates

3) The Intelligent Design Argument

4) Evolution violates the Second Law of Thermodynamics

5) Proteins are too improbable

6) Natural Selection do not imply evolution

7) The Irreducible Complexity Argument

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48
Q

Speciation

A

The process by which one species splits into two or more species

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49
Q

Microevolution

A

Consists of changes in allele frequency in a population over time

50
Q

Macroevolution

A

Refers to broad patterns of evolutionary change above the species level

51
Q

Biological Species Concept

A
  • A group of populations who members have the potential to interbreed in nature and produce viable, fertile offspring
  • They do not breed successfully with other populations
52
Q

How do species form

A
  • Reproductive Isolation
53
Q

Reproductive isolation

A

The existence of biological barriers that impede two species from producing viable, fertile offspring

54
Q

Hybrid

A

The offspring between different species

55
Q

Reproductive Isolation can be classified by

A

Prezygotic Barriers (before fertilization) and Postzygotic Barriers (After fertilization)

56
Q

Prezygotic Barriers

A

Block fertilization from occurring by:

  • Impeding different species from attempting to mate
  • Preventing the successful completion of mating
  • Hindering fertilization if mating is successful
57
Q

Habitat Isolation

A

(Prezygotic)
When two species encounter each other rarely, or not at all, because they occupy different habitats
- Not isolated by physical barriers

58
Q

Temporal Isolation

A

(Prezygotic)
Species that breed at different times of the day, different seasons, or different years cannot mix their gametes

59
Q

Allochrony

A

(Prezygotic)
Species using the same area or resource, but at different times

60
Q

Behavioral Isolation

A

(Prezygotic)
Courtship rituals and other behaviors unique to a species are effective barriers

Ex. When different courts in ACOTAR have different ways of showing love (making love)

61
Q

Mechanical isolation

A

(Prezygotic)
Morphological differences prevent successful mating

62
Q

Gametic isolation

A

(Prezygotic)
Sperm of one species may not be able to fertilize eggs of another species

63
Q

Postzygotic Barriers

A

Prevent the hybrid zygote from developing into a viable, fertile adult by:

  • Reduced hybrid viability
  • Reduced hybrid fertility
  • Hybrid breakdown
64
Q

Reduced Hybrid Viability

A

(Postzygotic)
Genes of the different parent species may interact and impair the hybrid’s development or survival

65
Q

Reduced Hybrid Fertility

A

(Postzygotic)
Even if hybrids are vigorous, they may be sterile

66
Q

Hybrid Breakdown

A

(Postzygotic)
Some first generation hybrids are fertile, but when they mate with another species or with either parent species, offspring of the next generation are feeble or sterile

67
Q

The biological Species Concept cannot be applied to

A

fossils or asexual organisms

68
Q

The Morphological Species Concept

A

Defines a species by their structural features

  • Applies to sexual and asexual species byt relies on subjective criteria
69
Q

The Ecological Species Concept

A

views a species in terms of its ecological niche

  • Applies to sexual and asexual species
  • Emphasizes the role of disruptive selection
70
Q

The Phylogenetic Species Concept

A

Defines a species as the smallest group of individuals on a phylogenetic tree

  • Applies to sexual and asexual species
  • Can be difficult to determine the degree of difference required for separate species
71
Q

Speciation can occur in two ways:

A
  • Allopatric Speciation
  • Sympatric Speciation
72
Q

Allopatric Speciation

A

Forms a new species while geographically isolated (different country)

73
Q

Sympatric Speciation

A

A subset forms a new species without geographic separation (same country)

74
Q

What is interrupted in allopatric speciation

A

Gene Flow is interrupted when a population is divided into geographically isolated subpopulations

75
Q

What can happen in allopatric speciation

A

Two populations may evolve independently through:

  • Mutation
  • Natural Selection
  • Genetic Drift
  • Reproductive Isolation may arise as a result of genetic divergence
76
Q

Sympatric Speciation occurs when

A

Gene Flow is reduced between groups that remain in contact through factors including:

  • Polyploidy
  • Habitat Differentiation
  • Sexual Selection
77
Q

Polyploidy

A

The presence of extra sets of chromosomes due to accidents during cell division

  • Offspring have reduced fertility
78
Q

Autopolyploid

A

An individual with more than two chromosome sets, derived from one species

  • Offspring have reduced fertility
79
Q

Allopolyploid

A

A species with multiple sets of chromosomes derived from different species

  • Cannot interbreed with either parent species
80
Q

Sympatric Speciation can also result from:

A
  • Habitat differentiation
  • Sexual Selection
81
Q

Hybrid Zone

A

A region in which members of different species mate and produce hybrids

82
Q

hybrids usually have reduced

A

Fitness compared to their parent species

83
Q

When closely related species meet in a hybrid zone, what are the possible outcomes

A
  • Reinforcement
  • Fusion
  • Stability
84
Q

Reinforcement

A

Occurs when hybrids are less fit than the parent species

  • Natural Selection reinforces reproductive barriers, and lowers the rate of hybridization over time
85
Q

Fusion

A

Fusion of the parent species into a single species may occur if the hybrids are as fit as the parents

  • Allows substantial gene flow between species
86
Q

Stability

A

Stability of the hybrid zone may be achieved if extensive gene flow from outside the hybrid zone overwhelm selection
- Increased reproductive isolation inside hybrid zone

87
Q

Punctuated Equilibria

A

Species experience long periods of relative stability (equilibrium) in their evolutionary history, punctuated by short, rapid bursts of significant change

88
Q

Macroevolution

A

The cumulative effect of many speciation and extinction events

89
Q

Systematics

A

The study of evolutionary relationships

90
Q

Phylogeny

A

The evolutionary history of an organism, including which species are closely related and in what order related species evolved

  • Often represented in the form of an evolutionary tree.
91
Q

Ancestral Characteristics

A

Similarity that is inherited from the most recent common ancestor of an entire group

92
Q

Derived Characteristic

A

Similarity that arose more recently and is shared only by a subset of the species

93
Q

Cladistics

A

A technique used for creating hierarchies of organisms that represent true phylogenetic relationship and descent

  • Classifies organisms by common descent
94
Q

Phylogenetic Tree

A

Represents a hypothesis about evolutionary relationships

95
Q

Rooted Tree

A

includes a branch to represent the most recent common ancestor of all taxa in the tree

96
Q

Sister Taxa

A

Groups that share an immediate common ancestor

97
Q

Basal Taxon

A

Diverges early in the history of a group and originates near the common ancestor of the group

98
Q

Polytomy

A

A branch from which more than two groups emerge

99
Q

Cladogram

A

Depicts a hypothesis of evolutionary relationships

100
Q

Clade

A

a group of species that share a common ancestor

101
Q

Synapomorphy

A

Derived character shared by clade members

102
Q

Plesiomorphies

A

ancestral states

103
Q

Symplesiomorphies

A

Shared ancestral states

104
Q

Homology

A

Similarity due to shared ancestry

105
Q

Analogy

A

Similarity due to convergent evolution

106
Q

Hemoplasies

A

Analogous structures or molecular sequences that evolved independently

107
Q

Homoplasy

A

A shared character state that has not been inherited from a common ancestor

  • Can result from convergent evolution and evolutionary reversal
108
Q

Parsimony

A

Favors the hypothesis that requires the fewest assumptions

109
Q

Maximum Parsimony

A

Assumes that the tree that requires the fewest evolutionary events is the most correct one (The one that most likely happened)

110
Q

Molecular Homologies

A

Similarities at the molecular level (such as in DNA, RNA, or proteins) between different species that indicate a common evolutionary ancestry

111
Q

Molecular Clock

A

The rate of evolution of a molecule is constant through time

  • Divergence in DNA can be used to calculate the times at which branching events have occurred
112
Q

Taxonomy

A

The science of classifying living things

113
Q

Binomial Nomenclature

A

The two part scientific name of a species (Also know as a Binomial)

114
Q

What’s the first part of a Binomial Nomenclature called

A

genus

115
Q

What’s the second part of a Binomial Nomenclature called

A

Specific Epithet

116
Q

What part is capitalized and what part is italicized in a Binomial Nomenclature

A
  • First letter of genus is capitalized
  • The entire species name is italicized
117
Q

Name the Hierarchical Classifications from broad to narrow

A

King Phillip Came Over For Good Soup

  • Domain
  • Kingdom
  • Phylum
  • Class
  • Order
  • Family
  • Genus
  • Species
118
Q

Monophyletic Group

A

Includes it’s ancestor and all descendants

119
Q

Paraphyletic Group

A

Includes some but not all descendants of an ancestor

120
Q

Polyphyletic Group

A

Includes some with different ancestral lineage

121
Q

Biological Species Concept (BSC)

A

Defines species as groups of interbreeding populations that are reproductively isolated

  • Cannot be applied to allopatric populations
  • Can be applied only to sexual species
122
Q

Phylogenetic Species Concept (PSC)

A

Defines that species is a population or set of populations characterized by one or more shared derived characters

  • Can be applied to both sexual and asexual species

BIOL 1407 (2 decks)

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