Exam 1 Flashcards
Why would we want to identify cochlear dead regions, clinically?
So that we can better understand how to determine the best amplification options
Explain how the TEN test identifies cochlear dead regions.
use noise that is calibrated to tells us if original response was coming from the actual place (on frequency listening) or not (off frequency listening)
it will tell use whether we have a dead region or not
if it is off frequency listening the threshold in noise will be higher than the noise level
At what dB HL can cochlear dead regions be present?
greater than 55dB
What audiometric configurations are more likely to be a result of cochlear dead regions? (Two scenarios)
10dB slope in the 2000-4000 Hz region
Reverse slope
we use ______ for easy speech understanding and ____ for harder speech understanding
bottom down, top down
why are cochlear dead regions not seen with flat hearing loss
in order to elicit off frequency response, stim needs to be at an elevated level.
if hearing for the nearby frequencies is also impaired, an off-frequency response is not likely
Which value of d’ prime indicates a more sensitive test, a higher value or a lower value?
higher
What is the advantage of using d’ as a measure of test sensitivity?
it is not dependent on the referral criteria??
Differentiate between a higher and a lower value of d’ based on hypothetical distributions of test scores
further apart they are the more sensitive the test
low is less sensitive and high is more sensitive test??
Be able to differentiate on-frequency listening vs. off-frequency listening
off frequency is a tone that is detected away from the region of peak basilar membrane vibration meaning that the tone is detected by the IHCs at the edge of the dead region
on frequency is when the frequency that is presented is the place on the basilar membrane that is actually responding
Define the terms model and theory
theory: statement of what we think we know about how something works
model: representation of it
what models and theories are used for
explain what we think we know about how the world works (auditory, speech, cognition etc.
used to test a new hypothesis
theories change over time, how we practice things is how theories are formed
What are 3 types of models used in speech and hearing research?
physical computer animal?
top down processing
harder
Higher level cognitive operations are highly involved in identifying and analyzing speech sounds
Prior knowledge and expectations
our brains form an idea of a big picture first from previous knowledge and then break it down into more specific information. We perceive the world around us by pulling from our perceptual set: past experiences, expectations, and emotions. Then, we form opinions.
examples of top down
Making assumptions based on prior knowledge
Concluding limited data
Interpreting what someone says based on context clues
Using predictions to fill in missing information
bottom up processing
easier
All information necessary to recognize sounds is contained in the acoustic signal and analyzed in the auditory pathway
active model of speech perception
top down
stresses link between speech perception and speech production
knowledge of how sounds are produced factor in speech recognition
cognitive energy or intellectual resources are used to identify speech
thinking about how sounds are produced in order to understand what is being said
passive models of speech perception
bottom up
purely sensory and not thinking about how the sounds are made
speech perception is almost entirely sensory
little to no use of cognitive resources
Differentiate between bottom-up and top-down processing of speech
top down requires more cognitive thinking and requires using what we already know to understand speech
bottom down, less cognitive thinking, something easy, all info we need is in the acoustic signal and processed before it gets to the brain
Differentiate between active and passive processing of speech
active - thinking about how the words are formed
passive - not, just sensory information
Motor Theory of speech perception
Postulates speech is perceived by reference to how it is produced
When perceiving speech, listeners access their own knowledge of how phonemes are articulated
Articulatory gestures, such as lip-rounding, are units of perception that provide the listener with phonetic information
active
top downf
Perceptual grouping of speech sounds
take sounds in the environment that as are receiving (change in pressure) and changing it to speech sounds that our brain interprets and understands
Segmentation of speech into meaningful units
speech is an acoustic stream and as can break it down into meaningful units (like number of words)
if it is a language we don’t know we can recognize it is speech but we have no idea what the units are
Comprehension of distorted and degraded speech (perceptual learning mechanisms)
we can still understand people talking even though they have an accent and we are using what we already know to understand what they are saying
we learn who our talker is
Which value of d’ prime indicates a more sensitive test, a higher value or a lower value?
Highet
Differentiate between a higher and a lower value of d’ based on hypothetical distributions of test scores
low is less sensitive and high is more sensitive test
further apart they are the more sensitive the test
Explain how the TEN test is able to identify cochlear dead regions
use noise that is calibrated to tells us if original response was coming from the actual place (on frequency listening) or not (off frequency listening)
it will tell use whether we have a dead region or not
if it is off frequency listening the threshold in noise will be higher than the noise level
differentiate on-frequency listening vs. off-frequency listening using the schematic
off frequency is a tone that is detected away from the region of peak basilar membrane vibration meaning that the tone is detected by the IHCs at the edge of the dead region
on frequency is when the frequency that is presented is the place on the basilar membrane that is actually responding
Define the terms model and theory
theory: statement of what we think we know about how something works
model: representation of it; A simplification of a system
physical, computer, animal models
what are models and theories are used for
explain what we think we know about how the world works (auditory, speech, cognition etc.
used to test a new hypothesis
theories change over time, how we practice things is how theories are formed
What are 3 types of models used in speech and hearing research?
physical representation
ex: 3d printed model
computer
program
animal
testing on mice
more overlap =
less sensitive
closer the peaks are =
less sensitive
less overlap =
more sensitive
what are the cognitive abilities
attention
processing speed
inhibition
short term/working memory
executive function
semantic knowledge/semantic memory
what are four different tests of cognitive abilities
exclude the possibility of a particular condition/disorder as part of a diagnosis
rule out
include the possibility of a particular condition/disorder as part of a diagnosis
rule in
what is bottom up processing
easier
you start with no perceived idea of what is going on and the stimulus influences your perception of what is going on
implicit
uses the stimulus itself in order to drive our perception
top down processing
difficult
uses background knowledge to influence perception
explicit
we use what we already have in our heads in order to determine what is going on
makes assumptions based on prior knowledg
top down processing
all information necessary to recognize speech sounds is in the acoustic signal and is analyzed in the auditory pathway (no significant brain involvement outside of auditory regions);
bottom up procesisng
Listener uses prior knowledge and expectations to recognize speech, using higher-level cognitive operations
top down processing
what is active processing of speech
listener draws upon knowledge of how sounds are produced, using cognitive energy and intellectual resources (a top-down theory);
what is passive processing of speech
speech perception is almost entirely sensory (auditory pathway) (a bottom-up theory)
Perceptual grouping of speech sounds
factors that contribute to speech understanding
The speech signal itself
Environment (noise, reverberation)
Listener’s familiarity with the speaker’s accent and language
Context/predictability
Listener’s sensory and cognitive abilities
Hearing aid features
Individual’s intention/motivation
Masking type (informational vs. energetic)
Informational = other speech
Energetic = non-speech noise
what are the terms under cognition
selective attention
processing speed
inhibition
memory (working)
executive function
semantic knowledge
what is attention
ability to attend to a desired target
what is processing speed
how quickly you process information
the amount of time it takes to process and react to a stimulus
inhibition
ability to inhibit extraneous information when responding to target stimuli
if I want to stephanie but kaiah is talking, you have to actively focus on stephanie and inhibit what kaiah is saying
ex: stroop test
saying the color of the word and inhibiting the text
short term memory
foundation of working memory
short term is the number of items able to be stored in memory in a short period of time
ex: number of items you can hold in memry for a short period of time
working memory
IS TASK-SPECIFIC
Simultaneously store and process information; the greater the working memory span, the greater number of items can be maintained and manipulated
ex: Doing math in your head
Remembering instructions as you start an assignment
Thinking about what someone is saying in conversation
Thinking about what you want to say while someone else is talking
Completing a task in order
executive functioning
Control of cognitive processes
include planning, adapting to rapidly-changing situations, monitoring behavior (updating), and include some or all previously-mentioned abilities, depending on the researcher
for example: trail making task: follow number and letters in order
semantic knowledge/semantic memory
ability to use what we know to understand what is being said
general knowledge we have acquired
knowledge of how things work
ex: picture naming, word sorting, picture sorting
Each of the cognitive abilities here tend to decline with age EXCEPT
semantic knowledge
why might older adults score better in semantic knowledge than younger?
they know more words and topics, they have more experience and can fill in the blanks easier
4 examples of how our brains are in play during speech perception
Perceptual grouping of speech sounds
Segmentation of speech into meaningful units
Comprehension of distorted and degraded speech (perceptual learning mechanisms)
Categorical perception
perceptual grouping of speech sounds
We hear speech as a single stream rather than a grouping of sounds. Examples: sine wave speech and noise-vocoded speech can be understood if you have heard the clear speech first but are not understood otherwise, also ability to discern accented speech. In order to understand these, we use prior knowledge and expectations. Without cognitive influences, perception of sine wave speech and noise vocoded speech would not change after hearing the clear speech.
take sounds in the environment that as are receiving (change in pressure) and changing it to speech sounds that our brain interprets and understands
segmentation of speech into meaningful units
in running speech if we know the language we can break it up into the syllables (individual words)
in another language we wouldnt know where the words stop
notice an accent when you first move somewhere but eventually you dont notice it anymore and you learn their way of speaking
relies o prior knowledge and expectations
what are cues of segmented connected speech
Suprasegmentals
Probability of occurrence
Recognition of meaningful units
perceptual learning of distorted speech
we can still understand people talking even though they have an accent and we are using what we already know to understand what they are saying
we learn who our talker is
A listener can learn to comprehend speech that is lacking conventional cues (foreign accent, child learning to talk, presence of interference/noise).
categorical perception
Listener perceives EITHER the voiced or the voiceless consonant, even with VOT is manipulated
if VOT is ambiguous to the brain, it will perceive it as either voiced or voiceless
will still make sense out of what is said because the theory is that the brain categorizes speech sounds and decides
act on relatively unprocessed representation of speech
top down
Speech production and speech perception are linked
Babbling during speech development
Interrupting auditory feedback causes speaker to change production
Speakers change to minimize or maximize differences in speech patterns of conversation partner
Lombard Effect
Ganong effect
listener is more likely to perceive a real word if VOT is somewhat ambiguous (kiss vs. giss)
Describe three ways in which speech production and speech perception are linked
Babbling during speech development (hearing is an important part of speech development); DAF- delayed auditory feedback, interrupting auditory feedback causes speaker to change production; speakers change their speech based on who they are talking to (as they hear the person talking); Lombard Effect- changes in speech intensity, fundamental frequency, and speaking rate when speaking in the presence of noise.
List 8 factors that contribute to speech understanding and include a brief phrase or sentence for each one explaining how these contribute to speech understanding.
The speech signal itself
Whether or not the signal contains distortions
environment
Noise, reverberation can affect
Listener’s familiarity with speaker’s accent and language
Easier if familiar
Context/predictability
Easier with context/predictability
Listener’s sensory and cognitive abilities
Hearing loss and cognitive impairment canmake speech processing more difficult
Hearing aid features
Some hearing aid features help, some don’t depending on person
Individual intention/ motivation
More motivation = more effort put in to hear= greater success in speech processing
Masking type
Information masking interferes to a greater extent than energetic, all else being equal
Ability to attend to a desired target in the presence of a distractor
attention
example of how attention is measured
Present group of items that differ in some dimension, tell participant to respond to only a particular item (click for only the red arrows, when they see arrows of different colors)
example of how to measure procesing speed
Reaction time experiments
The amount of time to process and react to a stimulus
processing speed
The ability to inhibit extraneous information when responding to a target
inhibition
how to measure inhibition
Stroop very common test of inhibition
Number of items able to be stored in memory for a short period of time
short term memory
how to measure short term
Letter, digit, or word span
Simultaneously store and process information
working memory
how to measure working memory
Recalling digits in reverse order as one example, there are many ways to measure working memory span
Control of cognitive processes, includes planning, adapting to rapidly-changing situations, monitoring behavior (updating)
executive control
measure of executive control
Trail-making task
Knowledge that has been acquired, includes knowledge of how things work, things that are common knowledge
semantic knowledg3
measures for semantic knowledge
Category fluency, picture naming, word-to-picture matching, picture sorting, word sorting
The subject is seated at a computer monitor. They are presented with a circle on the screen, one at a time, at random timing intervals. The task is to press the space bar as soon as they see the circle.
reaction time/processing speed
The subject is presented with text, specifically color names written out, of varying colors. The text color does not match the color name. The task is to name the color of the word.
inhibition/stroop test
The subject is given cards with pictures of objects and tasked with sorting them into pre-defined categories. For example, the cards may depict an orange, a rose, some berries, a hat, a daisy, and a glove. The cards should be sorted into the categories fruit, flowers, and clothing.
semantic knowledge/semantic memory
The subject is presented with sets of words and asked to repeat the words back, in order. The number of words (set size) increases after every correct response until the subject is unable to repeat back the full set in order.
short term memory
repeat the words in order and everytime i tell you the word, tell me if it starts with the first or second half of the alphabet
working memory
The subject is seated at a computer monitor. They are presented with a series of letter and number shapes, one at a time. They are tasked with pressing a button whenever they see a number shape.
selective attention
The subject is presented with a set of words, one at a time. For each word, they are required to say if it starts with a letter from the first half of the alphabet or the second half. They are also tasked with recalling the full set of words. The set size increases until they are no longer able to accurately state what part of the alphabet the first letter of the word is from AND recall the full set of words.
working memory
The subject is presented with a series of circles on a paper, some of which contain the letters of the alphabet, some of which contain digits. The subject is tasked with connecting the letters and numbers in order, switching back and forth between the letters and the numbers.
executive fxn
hear speech as a stream of sounds
perceptual grouping of sounds
breaking the stream up into words (using cues)
segmentation of speech into meaningful units
categorizing sounds (ex: p, b, have different VOT)
categorical perception
what is implicit processing
quick, bottom up, automatic
what is explicit processing
effortful, top down, DELIBERATE
postdictive
explicit, slow, think after the situation
predictive
implicit, fast, predicts what is coming
speech perception is almost entirely sensory
passive model
stresses link between speech perception and speech production
knowledge of how sounds are produced factor in speech recognition
active
cognitive energy or intellectual resources are used to identify speech
active
little to no use of cognitive resources
passive
multimodal
multiple senses
touch
vision
auditory
explain the ELU model
multiple input goes into implicit processing
brain takes this info and puts it together looking for a match in long term memory
match = automatic understanding
no match = no understanding (unless context)
now explicit processing occurs & pulls info to understand
what are easy matches
familiar talker, familiar conversation topic, quiet environment
what are mismatches
occurs when there is mismatch between current speech and long term memory arises when speech is distorted
Speaker characteristics: What characteristics of a speaker would make speech hard to hear?
foreign accent
how fast the talk
people who are developing speech are difficult to understand (kids)
dialect
environmental conditions
reverberations
noise
signal to noise ratio
direction it comes from
distance
auditory/cognition
HL or hearing ability (chl vs snhl, etc.)
differing abilities cognitively
factors determine how easy/difficult it is for someone to understand speech
speaker characteristics
environmental conditions
auditory/cognition
mismatch is more likely
unfamiliar talker
accent/dialect
familiar talker but with distortions
noisy environment, distractions, distance
hearing loss/impaired cognition
Explain the difference between implicit and explicit processing. When does each occur?
implicit = automatic, bottom up processing
explicit = deliberate/intentinoal, top down processing
Explain the predictive role of working memory in speech/language processing
implicit
fast
predict based on knowledge of sound, context and speaker
predicts what is coming
Explain the postdictive role of working memory in speech/language processing
explicit
slow
thiking after the situation
determine what it was after and use the context you heard to figure out the missing piece
there is a part of speech stream you didnt understand and holds in memory and processes it after the fact to understand
Explain how hearing aids can both reduce and increase the working memory capacity required for speech/language processing
Hearing aids can reduce the amount of working memory capacity required by increasing audibility of the stimulus
Can increase the amount of working memory capacity required by introducing unwanted distortion
Define listening effort
specific form of mental effort that occurs when a task involves listening
Explain the three categories for measuring listening effort and give an example of each.
physiological: pupils, EEG, saliva fMRI
Self report: survey questionnaire
behavioral - dual task paradigm shows decreased secondary task performance
Explain a dual-task paradigm (one example of a behavioral method for measuring listening effort)
- primary task is always a speech task
- secondary task is harder (tracking, recall, attention)
results cannot be compared across
when someone allocates cognitive resources for listening (increased listening effort) this means that there are fewer cognitive resources to carry out other tasks
tasks
true
effort
explicit
automatic
implicit
When we say there is a strong association between cognitive measures and speech in noise performance, are we talking about individual differences in cognitive abilities or are we talking about cognitive decline vs. normal cognition?
we are talking about the individual differences in cognitive abilities
ELU model
We have language in the long term and as info comes in the multimodal info is put together and looks for a match, if there is one in long term, understanding automatically occurs. An easy match is familiar talker or topic of conversation, quiet environment with short distance. For example, you ask a friend how they are and they say fine.
if it doesn’t match what is in long term, there is no understanding immediately and explicit understanding takes place and pulls in additional resources to understand and it is deliberate and effortful. A difficult match is an unfamiliar talker with an accent/dialect or there are distortions, noisy environment, hL or impaired cognition. For example, you go to a coffee shop and ask what a latte is but it is noisy and you misheard so you ordered it thinking it was drip coffee but it was espresso.
Hearing aids can increase the amount of working memory capacity by adding unwanted distortion
true
Hearing aids can reduce the amount of working memory capacity that is needed and does so by increasing the audibility of the stimulus
true
Explain the three primary ways listening effort is measured. Give an example of each.
Physiologic – pupillometry during a listening task
Self-Report- answer survey-type questions
Behavioral- dual-task paradigm
Define fatigue as it relates to speech processing.
No universally accepted definition, but something like- feeling of tiredness, exhaustion, lack of energy due to listening demands
Differentiate between listening effort and fatigue as it relates to speech processing.
Listening effort refers to the mental effort that is expended during speech processing. Listening-related fatigue can occur as a result of continuous effort.
What are some potential consequences for a person who experiences listening-related fatigue?
Feeling tired or exhausted, avoiding situations,
What are some coping strategies that people with hearing loss use to reduce listening-related fatigue?
Hearing devices (use or removal)
Rest
Modify situation
Avoidance, withdrawal, isolation “push through” and stay engaged
Use good communication skills
Explain how people with hearing loss can experience listening-related fatigue (physically, cognitively, socially, emotionally) with examples.
Physical- tired, low energy, exhausted
Social- avoidance, withdrawal, isolation
Emotional- frustration, anger, sadness, stress, disappointment
Cognitive- difficulty concentrating, difficulty remembering
