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Bio 113 > exam 1 > Flashcards

exam 1 Flashcards

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Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

what is a organism

A
  • made up of membrane bound cells
  • can reprodue
  • process heriditary information encoded in genes as well as information from the environment
  • acquire and use energy to stay alive
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2
Q

populations of organisms are…

A

constantly evolving

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3
Q

species

A

evolutionary independant population or group of populations

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4
Q

how are species different from other species?

A

appearance, behavior, etc.

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5
Q

population

A

group of individuals of same species living in the same geographic area at the same time, can breed amongst themselves

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6
Q

evolution is…

A

the change in characteristics of population overtime

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7
Q

species and populations in evolution

A
  • species are related to one another and can change overtime
  • populations evolve
  • changes in populations may lead to new species
    * populations evolve NOT individuals
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8
Q

genotype

A

genetic information that determines physical traits of individual

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9
Q

phenotype

A

physical traits of individual determined by genetic information

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10
Q

gene

A

sequence of nucleotides forming part of chromosome (what trait is)

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11
Q

allele

A

a variant form of a given gene (W or w) (what type of trait)

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12
Q

frequency of alleles

A

the proportion of individuals in a population with a particular allele

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13
Q

misconceptions about evolution

A
  • evolution is not goal oriented
  • it does not perfect organisms
  • indivudals do not evolve just populations
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14
Q

4 Models of Diversity of Life

A
  • Plato: typological thinking
  • Aristotle: typological thinking + scale of nature
  • Lamarck: scale of nature+ change through time
  • Darwin: change through time + common ancestry
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15
Q

Inheritance of Acquired Characters

A
  • as individuals develop, phenotypes change in response to environmental changes
  • phenotypic changes are passed onto offspring
  • not examples: nose jobs, body building
  • example:giraffes necks stretching over time
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16
Q

Natural Selection

A
  • individuals with certian heritable traits tend to produce more offspring than those wihtout those traits
  • only evolutionary process that produces adaptation
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17
Q

Natural selection leads to…

A

change in gentic makeup of population + major mechanism of evolution

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18
Q

Darwin and Wallace both understood about evolution that…

A
  • species are NOT static
  • evolution doesn’t follow a linear, progressive path
  • NS is based on variations among indivuals in populations
  • individuals in populations with certian traits produce more offspring than other
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19
Q

Darwins 4 Postulates

A
  1. there is variation of traits among individuals in a population
  2. some of the trait differences are heritable
  3. more individuals are produced than can survive
  4. survival and reproduction are non-random and depend of traits
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20
Q

Evidence of Evolution

A
  • change through time
  • species related by common ancestry
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21
Q

Evidence 1: Geological Time Scale

A

researches can now assign absolute ages to the geological time scale

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22
Q

Evidence 2: Extinction

A
  • extinction changes the species present over time
  • fossils provide evidence of extinct species
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23
Q

Evidence 3: Transitional Features

A
  • link older and younger species
  • Law of Succession
  • traits in fossil species that intermediate betweeen ancestral + dervived species
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24
Q

Evidence 4: Vestigal Traits

A
  • a reduced or incompletely developed structure in an organism that has no function
  • ex. ostriches have wings but can’t fly
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25
Q

Evidence 5: Species Changing Today

A

ex. drug resistance bacteria

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26
Q

Evidence 6: Similar species in same area

A

ex. hawaiian honeycreepers evolved from a single ancestor, adaptive radiation

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27
Q

Evidence 7: Homology

A

similarity that exists in species descended from common ancestor

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28
Q

Genetic Homology

A

similarity in DNA, RNA, or amino acid nucleotide sequences

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29
Q

Developmental Homology

A

similarity in developmental structures or processes among species

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30
Q

Structural Homology

A

similarity in adult morphology

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31
Q

Evidence 8: formation of new species

A

can observe the formation of new species today

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32
Q

Non-random evolutionary processes

A

natural, artificial, and sexual selection

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33
Q

Random evolutionary processes

A

Mutation, genetic drift and flow

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34
Q

Directional Selection

A
  • favors 1 extreme phenotype, causing average phenotype in population to change in 1 direction
  • genetic variation is reduced
  • orange
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35
Q

Stabilizing Selection

A
  • favors phenotypes near the middle of range of phenotypic variation-mainting average phenotype
  • genetic variation is reduced
  • red
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36
Q

Disruptive selection

A
  • favors extreme phenotype at both ends of the range
  • gentic variation is increased
  • blue
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37
Q

balancing selection

A
  • no single phenotype is favored in all populations of a species at all times
  • genetic variation is maintained
  • green
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38
Q

intersexual selection

A

females/males choose certain males/females to mate with

39
Q

intrasexual selection

A

males compete against other males to secure a mate

40
Q

artificial selection

A

non-random reproductive success and mate choice determined by human preference ex. dog breeding

41
Q

genetic drift

A
  • change in allele frequencies in population due to chance
  • stronger effects often found in smaller populations
  • random
  • overtime can lead to loss of alleles=decreased genetic variation
42
Q

Founder Effect and bottleneck cause…

A

smaller populations

43
Q

Founder event

A

occurs when group of individuals establish new population in new area

44
Q

founder effect

A

allele frequencies likely differ from source population if new population is small enough

45
Q

population bottleneck

A
  • sudden decrease in popualtion size in large populations
  • leads to genetic bottleneck: sudden reduction in # of alleles in population
46
Q

inbreeding

A

non-random mating which does not directly cause evolution

47
Q

inbreeding does…

A
  • speed up rate of evolutionary change
  • increases probability of getting deleterious recessive alleles
  • natural selection eliminates recessive deleterious alleles
48
Q

self fertilization

A
  • most extreme form of inbreeding
  • many flowering plants contain both m/f organs and self pollinate
49
Q

gene flow

A

movement of alleles across populations

50
Q

what does gene flow do

A
  • homogenizes allele frequencies among populations
  • can increase genetic diversity by creating new types of alleles
51
Q

mutation

A

change in the sequences of organisms DNA - ultimate cause of all genetic variation in populations

52
Q

mutations are…

A
  • rare + random
  • can occur by point mutations, chromosome-level mutations or lateral gene transfer
  • mutations create new alleles not just new combinations
53
Q

Modern Synthesis

A
  • application of Mendelian genetics to Darwinian evolution
  • era in 1900s where evolutionary biologists, mathemathics, and genetics collaborated to quantify evolution
54
Q

population genetics

A

study of processes that change allele and genotype frequencies in populations

55
Q

Hardy-Weinberg Hypothesis

A
  • Wanted to know what happened in an entire
    population when all individuals—and thus all possible
    genotypes—bred
  • Analyzed frequencies of alleles when individual in
    population mate and produce offspring
  • Gene pool concept
56
Q

Hardy-Weinberg Principle

A

Serves as mathematical null hypothesis for study of evolutionary processes

57
Q

Speciation

A
  • splitting event that creates two or more distinct species from an ancestral species
  • can be rapid or gradual
58
Q

Biologists can identify species through

A
  • biological
  • morphological
  • phylogenetic
59
Q

Prezygotic isoaltion

A

isolates before creation of zygote (fertilized egg)

60
Q

postzygotic isolation

A

isolates after the creation of the zygote

61
Q

morphospecies concept

A

species are the smallest groups that are consistently and persistently distinct, and have distinguishable traits

62
Q

phylogenetic species

A

smallest monophyletic group on a phylogenetic tree

63
Q

phylogeny

A

the branching evolutionary history of a group of organisms is

64
Q

phylogenetic tree

A

simplified version of phylogeny

65
Q

monophyletic group

A

any group that forms an evolutionary unit

66
Q

evolutionary tree

A

compare traits of species that are alive to traits of species that are extinct
* compare DNA of species
* build tree based of shared traits (synapomorphies)

67
Q

evolutionary tree shows…

A

evolutionary and genetic relationships, time from evolutionary divergence

68
Q

complications of tree

A
  • traits may be similar due to independant evolution (homoplasy) not common ancestry (homology)
  • reversal in character state may occur, creating apperance that no change occured
  • species can be in 2 different monophyletic groups
69
Q

intact fossil

A
  • Forms when decomposition does not occur and the organic remains are preserved intact.
  • ex. Pollen
70
Q

convergent evolution is…

A

common cause of homoplasy

71
Q

Compression fossil

A
  • Forms when sediments accumulate on top of the organism and become cemented into rocks such as mudstone or shale. The sediments’ weight compresses the organic material below into a thin, carbonaceous film.
  • ex. Leaf
72
Q

cast fossil

A
  • Forms when a buried organism decomposes, leaving an empty cavity in the sediments that fills with dissolved minerals and hardens into an accurate cast of the remains.
  • ex. Ammonite
73
Q

Permineralized fossil

A
  • Forms when organisms decompose extremely slowly. Dissolved minerals gradually infiltrate the interior of cells and harden into stone
  • ex. pertrified wood & bones
74
Q

trace fossil

A

Forms when sedimentation and mineralization
preserve indirect evidence of an organism in the
environment, including footprints, tracks, burrows,
feeding marks, and feces.

75
Q

Fossil record limitations

A
  • Habitat bias
  • Taxonomic and tissue bias
  • Temporal bias
  • Abundance bias
76
Q

Why polyploidy is common in plants?

A

Polyploids
* Can tolerate higher levels of self-fertilization: They are not as affected by inbreeding depression as are diploids
Genes on duplicated chromosomes can
diverge independently
* This increases genetic variation in the population

77
Q

Reintroduction

A
  • Populations fusing over time is the simplest outcome of two populations coming into contact: Gene flow erases any distinctions between them
78
Q

Hybrid zone

A

Geographic area where interbreeding between two populations occurs and hybrid offspring are common

79
Q

life’s timeline

A
  • earth started to form ~ 4.6 bya
  • life began ~ 3.5 bya
  • Precambrian ~4.5 bya- 541mya
  • Phanerozoic Era ~ 541mya to present
80
Q

what triggered cambrian explosion

A
  • higher oxygen levels
  • rise in algae
  • evolution of predation
  • new niches beget more new niches
  • new genes, new bodies
81
Q

2 general triggers of adaptive radiation

A
  1. favorable new conditons in environment
  2. evolution of key morphological, physiological, or behavior traits
82
Q

mass extinction

A
  • rapid exitinction of a large # of diverse species around the world
  • opposite of adaptive radiation
  • caused by catastrophic events
83
Q

cell type

A
  • Early embryonic cells have the potential to become
    almost any cell type
  • As cells grow, they are set on a path of differentiation
  • Embryonic animal cells commit to an adult state
84
Q

Cell differentiation and specialization

A
  • Signals direct cells to a developmental path
  • Two mechanisms for specifying cell fate:
    1. Cytoplasmic determinants—Regulatory
    molecules that are unequally distributed to
    daughter cells
    2. Induction—One daughter cell receives a signal
    that the other does not
85
Q

Evidence for cell differentiation

A
  • All cells in a plant are genetically equivalent
  • Some branch cells can de-differentiate and form root cells
  • Entire plants can be grown from a single adult cell
  • Clones
86
Q

Cell death is normal

A
  • Highly regulated
  • Apoptosis – most common programmed cell death
  • Cells that form webbing between toes die
  • About half of neurons die as nervous system is wired
  • Harmful immune cells are eliminated
87
Q

Fate of a cell depends on its
position along the three body
axes:

A
  1. Anterior to posterior (head to tail)
  2. Dorsal to ventral (back to belly)
  3. Left to right
88
Q

A gradient and differentiation

A
  • Pattern formation
  • Cells receive information based on a gradient- morphogens
  • They then differentiate along that gradient
  • If this gradient is disrupted, development does not go as intended
89
Q

Gene regulatory cascades

A
  • Genetic regulatory cascades supply progressively detailed information about:
  • Where cells are located
  • What they are to become
  • A genetic regulatory cascade is a set of linked regulatory genes
90
Q

Tool-kit genes

A
  • Mutations allow tool-kit
    genes to be used in new
    ways in different species
  • But there are
    developmental
    constraints
91
Q

hox genes

A
  • Determine important structures during development
  • Hox proteins determine the ‘position’ of structures ensuring that the correct structures develop in the correct places in the body.
92
Q

structures

A
  • Cells, tissues, organs
  • Traits that help an organism survive in their environment might be under very strong selection
93
Q

constraints

A
  • Genetic: Genes for important features cannot be lost or changed
  • Physical: Body size (volume and size)
  • Chemical: Moving nutrients among tissues (systems)

Bio 113 (4 decks)

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