Exam 1 Flashcards
(168 cards)
1
Q
What is signal detection theory?
A
A psychophysical theory that quantifies the response of an observer to the presentation of a signal in the presence of noise. Measures obtained from a series of presentations are sensitivity (d) and criterion of the observer
2
Q
The sixth pair of cranial nerves which innervate the lateral rectus muscle of the eyeball
A
Abducens (VI) nerves
3
Q
The minimum amount of stimulation necessary for a person to detect stimulus 50% of the time
A
Absolute threshold
4
Q
Also referred to as connectionist models, are computational methods that consist of networks of nodes with weighted connections between them. Connection weights increase and decrease following experience in ways that resemble organization of biological networks.
A
Artificial neural networks
5
Q
Theoretical and or computational models that employ Bayesian statistical methods to generate an internal model of the source of sensory inputs based upon prior experience
A
Bayesian models
6
Q
The ratio of oxygenated to deoxygenated hemoglobin that permits the localization of brain neurons that are most involved in the task
A
Blood oxygen level dependent (BOLD) signal
7
Q
The use of mathematical language and equations to describe steps in psychological and/or neural processes (often implemented on a computer)
A
Computational model
8
Q
12 pairs of nerves (one for each side of the body) that originate in the brain stem and reach sense organs and muscles through openings in the skull
A
Cranial nerves
9
Q
In reference to signal detection theory, an internal threshold, that is set by the observer. If the internal response is above criterion, the observer gives one response (e.g. “yes, i hear that”). Below criterion the observer gives another response (“no, i hear nothing”)
A
Criterion
10
Q
The ability to match the intensities of sensations that come from different sensory modalities. This ability allows insight into sensory differences. For example, a listener might adjust the brightness of the light until it matches the loudness of a tone
A
Cross-modality matching
11
Q
Artificial neural networks that have a very large number of layers of nodes with millions of connections
A
Deep neural networks
12
Q
A doctrine formulated by Johannes Müller, stating that the nature of a sensation depends on which sensory fibers are stimulated rather than how they are stimulated
A
Doctrine of specific nerve energies
13
Q
The idea that the mind has an existence separate from the material world of the body
A
Dualism
14
Q
Theoretical, and or computational models that explain neural processing by assuming that sensory systems become tuned to predictability in natural environments in ways that economically encode predictable sensory inputs, while highlighting inputs that are less predictable
A
Efficient coding models
15
Q
A technique that, using many electrodes on the scalp, measures electrical activity from populations of many neurons in the brain
A
Electroencephalography (EEG)
16
Q
A measure of electrical activity from a subpopulation of neurons in response to particular stimuli that requires averaging many EEG recordings
A
Event related potential (ERP)
17
Q
A principle describing the relationship between stimulus and resulting sensation that says the magnitude of subjective sensation increases proportionally to the logarithm of the stimulus intensity
A
Fechner’s law
18
Q
A variant of magnetic resonance imaging that makes it possible to measure localized patterns of activity in the brain. Activated neurons provoke increased blood flow, which can be quantified by measuring changes in the response of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood to strong magnetic fields
A
fMRI
19
Q
The smallest detectable difference between two stimuli or the minimum change in a stimulus that enables it to be correctly judged as different from a reference stimulus
A
Just noticeable difference (JND) or difference threshold
20
Q
An imaging technology that uses the responses of atoms to strong magnetic fields to form images of structures, like the brain. The method can be adopted to measure activity in the brain as well.
A
MRI
21
Q
A technique similar to EEG that measures changes in magnetic activity across populations of many neurons in the brain
A
Magnetoencephalography (MEG)
22
Q
A psychophysical method in which the participant assigns values according to perceived magnitude of the stimuli
A
Magnitude estimation
23
Q
A pattern of light striking the eye, making photo receptors activate is ____, whereas recognizing the pattern of light as a cat is _____.
A
Sensation, perception
24
Q
Which conceptual approach to understanding sensation, and perception might measure the lowest volume that you can hear a different frequencies?
A
Thresholds
25
Which conceptual approach to understanding sensation and perception studies how people make difficult perceptual decisions?
Signal detection theory
26
Which conceptual approach to understanding sensation and perception might measure your brain activity while taking a hearing test?
Neuroimaging
27
The idea that the only thing that exists is matter, and that all things, including the mind and consciousness, are the results of interaction between bits of matter
Materialism
28
The use of mathematical language and equations to describe psychological and/or neural processes
Mathematical model
29
A method of limits in which the participant controls the change in the stimulus
Method of adjustment
30
A psychophysical method in which many stimuli ranging from rarely to almost always perceivable, represented one at a time. Participants respond to each presentation: “yes/no” “ same/different”, so on
Method of constant stimuli
31
Psychophysical method in which the particular dimension of a stimulus or the difference between two stimuli, is varied incrementally until the participant responds differently
Method of limits
32
A set of methods that generate images of the structure and/or function of the brain. In many cases these methods, allow us to examine the brain in living, behaving humans
Neuroimaging
33
A chemical substance used in neuronal communication at the synapses
Neurotransmitters
34
The third pair of cranial nerves, which innervate all the extrinsic muscles of the eye, except the lateral rectus, and the superior oblique muscles, and which innervate the elevator muscle of the upper eyelid, the ciliary muscle, and the sphincter muscle of the pupil
Oculomotor (III) nerves
35
The first pair of cranial nerves. The axons of the olfactory sensory neurons bundled together after passing through the cribriform plate to form the olfactory nerve, which conducts impulses from the olfactory epithelia in the nose to the olfactory bulb
Olfactory (I) nerves
36
The second pair of cranial nerves which arise from the retina and carry visual information to the thalamus and other parts of the brain
Optic (II) nerves
37
The idea that the mind exists as a property of all matter- that is that all matter has consciousness
Panpsychism
38
The act of giving meaning to a detected sensation
Perception
39
Referring to blending multiple sensory systems
Polysensory
40
An imaging technology that enables us to define locations in the brain, where neurons are especially active by measuring the metabolism of brain cells using safe radioactive isotopes
Positron emission tomography (PET)
41
The use of Bayesian models to predict future inputs. If predictions do not match inputs (prediction error), the model is adjusted to improve future predictions
Predictive coding
42
The science of defining quantitative relationships between physical and psychological (subjective, perceptual) events
Psychophysics
43
In reference to philosophy, private conscious experiences of sensation or perception
Qualia
44
In reference to studies of signal detection, the graphical plot of the hit rate as a function of the false alarm rate. If these are the same points fall on the diagonal indicating that the observer cannot tell the difference between the presence and absence of the signal. As the observer sensitivity increases, the curve bows upward toward the upper left corner. That point represents a perfect ability to distinguish signal from noise (100% hits, 0% false alarms)
Receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve
45
The ability to detect the stimulus, and perhaps to turn that detection into a private experience
Sensation
46
In reference to signal detection theory, a measure that defines the ease with which an observer can tell the difference between the presence and absence of a stimulus or the difference between stimulus 1 and stimulus 2.
Sensitivity
47
The process of combining different sensory signals. The senses typically work together to learn about the world and to guide behavior. This is not the same as the mathematical process of integration learned in calculus.
Sensory integration or multisensory integration
48
A principle describing the relationship between stimulus and resulting sensation that says, the magnitude of subjective sensation is proportional to the stimulus magnitude raised to an exponent
Stevens power law
49
The junction between neurons that permits information transfer
Synapse
50
The fourth pair of cranial nerves which innervate the superior oblique muscles of the eyeballs
Trochlear (IV) nerves
51
The minimum distance at which to stimuli (e.g. Two simultaneous touches) are just perceptible a separate
Two point touch threshold
52
The eighth pair of cranial nerves, which connect the inner ear with the brain, transmitting impulses concerned with hearing and spatial orientation. The vestibulocochlear nerve is composed of the cochlear nerve branch and the vestibular nerve branch.
Vestibulocochlear (VIII) nerves
53
The constant of proportionality in webers law
Weber fraction
54
The principle describing the relationship between stimulus and resulting sensation that says the just noticeable difference (JND) is a constant fraction of the comparison stimulus
Webers law
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To take up some thing, such as light noise or energy, and not transmit it at all
Absorb
56
The process by which the eye changes its focus (in which the lens gets fatter, as gaze is directed toward near objects.)
Accommodation
57
A disease associated with aging that affects the macula. It gradually destroys sharp, central vision, making it difficult to read, drive and recognize faces.
Age-related macular degeneration (AMD)
58
What are the two forms of AMD?
Wet and dry
59
A retinal cell found in the inner nuclear layer that makes synoptic contacts with bipolar cells, ganglion cells, and other amacrine cells.
Amacrine cell
60
The watery fluid in the anterior chamber of the eye
Aqueous humor
61
A visual defect caused by the unequal curving of one or more of the refractive surfaces of the eye; usually the cornea.
Astigmatism
62
A retinal cell that synapses with either rods or cones (not both) and with horizontal cells, and then passes the signals onto the ganglion cells
Bipolar cell
63
An opacity of the crystalline lens
Cataract
64
The light catching part of the visual pigments of the retina
Chromophore
65
A photo receptor specialized for daylight vision, fine visual acuity, and color
Cone
66
The difference in luminance between an object in the background, or between lighter and darker parts of the same object
Contrast
67
The transparent “window” into the eyeball
Cornea
68
A bipolar retinal cell whose processes are spread out to receive input from multiple cones
Diffuse bipolar cell
69
A unit of measurement of the optical power of lens . It is equal to the reciprocal of the focal length in meters.
Diopter (D)
70
A 2 diopter lens will bring parallel rays of light into focus at ___ m.
1/2 m (50cm)
71
In reference to the retina consisting of two parts: the rods in the cones, which operate under different conditions
Duplex
72
The angular distance between the retinal image and the fovea
Eccentricity
73
The condition in which there is no refractive error, because the refractive power of the eye is perfectly matched to the length of the eyeball
Emmetropia
74
An acoustic electrical electronic or optical device instrument, computer program or neuron that allows the passage of some frequencies or digital elements and blocks the passage of others
Filter
75
The distance between the lens (or mirror) and the viewed object in meters
Focal distance
76
A small pit located near the center of the macula and containing the highest concentration of cones and no rods. It is the portion of the retina that produces the highest visual acuity, and serves as the point of fixation.
Fovea
77
The back layer of the retina: with the eye doctor sees through an ophthalmoscope
Fundus
78
A retinal cell that receives visual information from photo
receptors via two intermediate neuron types (bipolar cells, and amacrine cells) and transmit information to the brain and midbrain.
Ganglion cell
79
An electrical potential that can vary continuously in amplitude
Graded potential
80
Specialized retinal cell that contacts both photoreceptor and bipolar cells
Horizontal cell
81
The perceptual attribute of colors that enables them to be classified as similar to red green or blue, or something in between
Hue
82
Farsightedness, a common condition in which light entering the eyes focus behind the retina and accommodation is required in order to see near objects clearly
Hyperopia
83
A change in membrane potential such that the inner membrane surface becomes more negative than the outer membrane surface
Hyperpolarization
84
A picture or likeness
Image
85
The part of a photo receptor that lies between the outer segment and the cell nucleus
Inner segment
86
The colored part of the eye consisting of a muscular diaphragm surrounding the pupil and regulating the light entering the eye by expanding and contracting the pupil
Iris
87
A neuron located between the magnocellular and parvocellular layers of the lateral geniculate nucleus. This layer is known as the ___ layer.
Koniocellular cell, koniocellular
88
Antagonistic neural interaction between adjacent regions of the retina
Lateral inhibition
89
The structure inside the eye that enables the changing of focus
Lens
90
A ganglion cell resembling a little umbrella that receives excitatory input from diffuse bipolar cells, and feeds the magnocellular layer of the lateral geniculate nucleus
M ganglion cell
91
The pigmented region, with a diameter of about 5.5 mm near the center of the retina. It is sometimes referred to as the ___ lutea (from the Latin) because if its yellow appearance
Macula
92
A photopigment that is sensitive to ambient light
Melanospin
93
A small bipolar cell in the central retinal that receives input from a single cone
Midget bipolar cell
94
Nearsightedness, a common condition in which light entering the eye is focused in front of the retina and distant objects cannot be seen sharply
Myopia
95
A bipolar cell that hyperpolarizes in response to an increase in light captured by the cones
OFF bipolar cell
96
A cell that increases firing in response to a decrease in light intensity in its receptive field center
OFF center cell
97
Bipolar cell that depolarizes in response to an increase in light captured by the cones
ON bipolar cell
98
A cell that increases firing in response to an increase in light intensity in its receptive field center
ON center cell
99
The part of a photoreceptor that contains photopigment molecules
Outer segment
100
A small ganglion cell that receives excitatory input from single midget bipolar cells in the central retina and feeds the parvocellular layer of the lateral geniculate nucleus
P ganglion cell
101
Activation by light
Photoactivation
102
A quantum of visible light or other form of electromagnetic radiation demonstrating both particle and wave properties
Photon
103
A light-sensitive receptor in the retina
Photoreceptor
104
Literally “old sight”; the age related loss of accommodation, which makes it difficult to focus on near objects
Presbyopia
105
The dark circular opening at the center of the iris in the eye, where light enters the eye
Pupil
106
The region on the retina in which visual stimuli influence a neuron’s firing rate
Receptive field
107
To redirect some thing that strikes a surface- especially light, sound, or heat- usually back toward its point of origin
Reflect
108
1. To alter the course of a wave of energy that passes into something from another medium, as water does to light entering it from the air
2. To measure the degree of refraction in a lens or eye
Refract
109
A very common disorder in which the image of the world is not clearly focused on the retina. The most common of these are myopia, hyperopia, astigmatism, and presbyopia.
Refractive error
110
A light-sensitive membrane in the back of the eye that contains photoreceptors and other cell types that transduce light into electrochemical signals and transmit them to the brain through the optic nerve
Retina
111
A progressive degeneration of the retina that affects night vision and peripheral vision. It Commonly runs in families and can be caused by defects in a number of different genes that have recently been identified.
Retinitis pigmentosa (RP)
112
The visual pigment found in the rods
Rhodopsin
113
A photoreceptor specialized for night vision
Rod
114
To disperse something- such as light- in an irregular fashion
Scatter
115
1. The ability to perceive via the sense organs.
2. Extreme responsiveness to radiation, especially to light of a specific wavelength.
3. The ability to respond to transmitted signals
Sensitivity
116
The location where axons terminate at the synapse for transmission of information by the release of a chemical transmitter
Synaptic terminal
117
To convert from one form of energy to another (e.g. From light to neural electrical energy or from mechanical movement to neural electrical energy). Neurons use electrical signals in their communication.
Transduce
118
To convey something from one place or thing to another
Transmit
119
Referring to the characteristic of a material that allows light to pass through it, with no interruptions such that objects on the other side can be clearly seen
Transparent
120
A measure of the finest detail that can be resolved by the eyes
Visual acuity
121
The angle that an object subtends at the eye
Visual angle
122
The transparent fluid that fills the vitreous chamber in the posterior part of the eye
Vitreous humor
123
An oscillation that travels through a medium by transferring energy from one particle or point to another without causing any permanent displacement of the medium
Wave
124
The smallest spatial detail that can be resolved at 100% contrast
Acuity
125
A reduction in response caused by prior or continuing stimulation
Adaptation
126
A developmental disorder characterized by reduced spatial vision in an otherwise healthy eye, even with proper correction for refractive error; also known as lazy eye
Amblyopia
127
A condition in which the two eyes have different refractive errors (e.g. One eye is farsighted, and the other is not)
Anisometropia
128
Regular arrays of blobs spaced about 0.5 mm a part in the striate cortex (V1), so named because their presence is visualized by staining with the enzyme cytochrome oxidase (CO). They may function in color perception.
CO blobs
129
A vertical arrangement of neurons. Neurons with a single column tend to have similar receptive fields and similar orientation preferences.
Column
130
A cortical neuron whose receptive field does not have clearly defined excitatory and inhibitory regions
Complex cell
131
Referring to the opposite side of the body or brain
Contralateral
132
A function describing how the sensitivity to contrast (defined as the reciprocal of the contrast threshold) depends on the spatial frequency (size) of the stimulus
Contrast sensitivity function (CSF)
133
The smallest amount of contrast required to detect a pattern
Contrast threshold
134
The amount of cortical area (usually specified in millimeters) devoted to a specific region (e.g. 1 degree) in the visual field
Cortical magnification
135
A phase in the lifespan during which abnormal early experience can alter normal neuronal development
Critical period
136
For a grating, a pair consisting of one dark bar and one bright bar
Cycle
137
The number of grating cycles per degree of visual angle
Cycles per degree
138
What region of the retina contains the highest visual acuity?
Fovea
139
The process by which a cell in the cortex increases its firing rate as the length of a bar increases until the bar fills up its receptive field, and then it decreases its firing rate as the bar is lengthened further
End stopping
140
A mathematical procedure, by which any signal can be separated into component sine waves at different frequencies. Combining the sine waves (Fourier synthesis) will reproduce the original single
Fourier analysis
141
1 mm block of striate cortex containing two sets of columns, each covering every possible orientation (0-180 degrees) with one set preferring input from the left eye and one set preferring input from the right eye
Hypercolumn
142
Referring to the same side of the body or brain
Ipsilateral
143
A structure in the thalamus, part of the midbrain, that receives input from the retinal ganglion cells and has input and output connections to the visual cortex
Lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN)
144
Either of the bottom two neuron-containing layers of the lateral geniculate nucleus, the cells of which are physically larger than those in the top four layers
Magnocellular layer
145
The property of the receptive field of striate cortex neurons by which they demonstrate a preference, responding somewhat more rapidly when a stimulus is presented in one eye than when it is presented in the other
Ocular dominance
146
The tendency of neurons in striate cortex to respond optimally to certain orientations and less to others
Orientation tuning
147
Any of the top four neuron-containing layers of the lateral geniculate nucleus, the cells of which are physically smaller than those in the bottom two layers
Parvocellular layer
148
The position of a grating relative to a fixed position measured in degrees, where one complete cycle is 360°
Phase
149
The area of the cerebral cortex of the brain that receives direct inputs from the lateral geniculate nucleus, as well as feedback from other brain areas
Primary visual cortex (V1), area 17, or striate cortex
150
A cortical neuron whose receptive field has clearly defined excitatory and inhibitory regions
Simple cell
151
A grating with a sinusoidal luminance profile
Sine wave grating
152
The number of grating cycles (e.g. Changes in light and dark) per unit of visual angle (usually specified in degree) in a given unit of space
Spatial frequency
153
A pattern analyzer, implemented by an ensemble of cortical neurons, in which each set of neurons is tuned to a limited range of spatial frequencies
Spatial-frequency channel
154
Misalignment of the two eyes such that a single object in space is imaged on the fovea of one eye and on a nonfoveal area of the other (turned) eye
Strabismus
155
The perceptual illusion of a tilt, produced by adaptation to a pattern of a given orientation
Tilt aftereffect
156
The orderly mapping of the world in the lateral geniculate nucleus and the visual cortex
Topographical mapping
157
The deleterious effect of clutter on peripheral object recognition
Visual crowding
158
French philosopher who gave the example of the statue only being able to smell, saying it would be nothing but that rose
Condillac
159
nonmetrical information
160
euclidian geometry (slide rules)
161
texture gradient
162
relative height
above horizon
below horizon=lower
163
ponzo illusion
164
parallax motion
more something moves across visual field, the closer it is (monocal depth cue
165
foveating/foveation
166
corresponding retinal points
falling on the same in the two retinas
167
uncrossed disparity
farther away
168
