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Human Biology > Exam 1 > Flashcards

Exam 1 Flashcards

1
Q

A needle would pierce the skin of the forearm in which order?

(1) stratum basale; (2) stratum granulosum; (3) stratum spinosum; (4) stratum corneum; (5) stratum lucidum

A

4-2-3-1

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2
Q

Lamellar corpuscles __________.

  • are deep pressure-sensitive receptors
  • are located at the epidermal-dermal junction
  • project superficially to indent the epidermis
  • contain free nerve endings for the perception of pain
A

are deep pressure-sensitive receptors

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3
Q

Select all of the functions of skin.

  • Protects internal body structures
  • Regulates body temperature
  • Synthesizes vitamin C
  • Excretes waste products
  • Stores calcium
A
  • Protects internal body structures
  • Regulates body temperature
  • Excretes waste products
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4
Q

Select all of the true statements regarding the pigment melanin.

  • Melanin protects the nuclei of keratinocytes from ultraviolet (UV) radiation.
  • Melanin production increases in the absence of sunlight exposure.
  • Freckles and moles appear where melanin concentrates in one spot.
  • Star-shaped epidermal dendritic cells produce melanin.
  • Melanin ranges in color from yellow to brown to black.
A
  • Melanin ranges in color from yellow to brown to black.
  • Melanin protects the nuclei of keratinocytes from ultraviolet (UV) radiation.
  • Freckles and moles appear where melanin concentrates in one spot.
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5
Q

One important role of the skin is to produce __________, which is essential for normal calcium absorption.

A

vitamin D

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6
Q

The epidermis is predominately composed of __________ tissue.

A

epithelial

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7
Q

As cells progress from the deeper portion of the epidermis toward the surface, __________.

A

they become flatter and die

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8
Q

Select the terms that relate to hair.

  • Follicle
  • Free edge
  • Bulb
  • Sheath
  • Lunule
A

follicle, bulb, sheath

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9
Q

The __________ is the avascular, keratinized layer of skin.

A

epidermis

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10
Q

most numerous cells of the epidermis

A

keratinocytes

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11
Q

produce the pigment melanin

A

melanocytes

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12
Q

sensitive to touch

A

Merkel cells

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13
Q

help fight infection

A

epidermal dendritic cells

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13
Q

the type of tissue that makes up the bulk of the dermis is _________

A

dense irregular connective tissue

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14
Q

Which glands produce the oily secretion called sebum?

A

sebaceous glands

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15
Q

Select all of the true statements regarding the significance of alterations in skin color.

  • Bruises reveal sites where blood has escaped from the circulation and formed hematomas.
  • Blanching (or pallor) may indicate embarrassment, fever, inflammation, or hypertension.
  • Jaundice usually signifies a liver disorder in which excess bile pigments are deposited in body tissues.
  • Erythema may indicate anemia and low blood pressure.
A
  • Jaundice usually signifies a liver disorder in which excess bile pigments are deposited in body tissues.
  • Bruises reveal sites where blood has escaped from the circulation and formed hematomas.
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16
Q

Sebaceous glands are usually associated with __________.

A

hair follicles

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17
Q

Hair, nails, and the outer layer of the skin are made mostly of a tough protein called __________.

A

keratin

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18
Q

Mitosis occurs in which layer of the epidermis?

  • Stratum corneum
  • Stratum basale
  • Stratum granulosum
  • Stratum lucidum
  • Reticular layer
A

stratum basale

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19
Q

what is the outermost layer of the skin?

A

the epidermis

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20
Q

what are two epidermal strucutres?

A

hair follicle and sebaceous glands

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21
Q

describe the hypodermis

A

subcutaneous layer of fat

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22
Q

what are the three layers of skin?

A

epidermis, dermis, hypodermis

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23
Q

where are melanocytes found?

A

the stratum basale

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24
Q

how often does the skin regenerate?

A

every 30-45 days

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25
Q

what are the layers of the epidermis? what cell types are they made of?

A
  • made up of stratified squamous epithelium
  • base layer: stratum basale
  • stratum spinosum
  • stratum granulosum
  • stratum corneum
  • stratum lucidum
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26
Q

describe the stratum basale

A
  • the mitotic layer of the epidermis, actively dividing
  • made up of melanocytes + single layer of keratinocytes + the occasional Merkel cell
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27
Q

describe the stratum spinosum

A

cells contain thick bundles of intermediate filaments made of pre-keratin

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28
Q

describe the stratum granulosum

A
  • cells are flattened, organelles are deteriorating, cytoplasm full of granules
  • cells still have nuclei
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29
Q

describe the stratum corneum

A
  • cells no longer have nucleus
  • cells are flat, membranous sacs filled with keratin
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30
Q

what makes the skin water resistant?

A

glycolipids in extracellular space

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31
Q

describe the stratum lucidum

A
  • found in areas of the body with thicker skin (palms of the hands, soles of the feet)
  • found between the granulosum and corneum layers
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32
Q

what are the two layers of the dermis?

A

the papillary layer and the reticular layer

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33
Q

characterize the papillary layer (location, structure, function)

A
  • upper layer of the dermis, less thick
  • made up of areolar connective tissue
  • forms cone-shaped ridges called the dermal papillae
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34
Q

characterize the reticular layer of the dermis

A
  • lower layer
  • made up of dense, irregular connective tissue
  • very tough and strong but flexible
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35
Q

what are dermal papillae (structure and function)

A
  • cone shaped ridges, contain blood vessels, nerve endings, etc. that help to support the overlaying epidermis
  • can be arranged in certain parts of the body (palms and soles) in particular patterns that increase the friction of those structures
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36
Q

define/describe exocrine glands

A
  • cutaneous
  • all have a duct, and the duct delivers what the gland is making to the epithelium surface
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37
Q

define/describe sebaceous glands, what kind of gland is it an example of?

A
  • example of exocrine glands
  • make substance called sebum
  • always connected to a hair follicle
  • secrete the oil (sebum) and it moves out through the pores and to the surface of the skin
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38
Q

what is the job of sedum/oil?

A
  • to lubricate hair/skin, make it more pliable/soften it
  • also has antibacterial capabilities
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39
Q

describe/define sweat glands. what kind of glands are they an example of?

A
  • example of exocrine glands
  • coiled structures that originate in the dermis and then through the duct to the surface
  • sweat is delivered through a pore to the surface of the skin
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40
Q

what are the two types of sweat glands?

A
  • eccrine
  • apocrine
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41
Q

describe eccrine sweat glands

A
  • widespread throughout the body, make a watery sweat that contains sweat, urea and uric acid
  • responsible for releasing body heat
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42
Q

describe apocrine glands

A
  • localized to axillary (armpit) region of the body and the genital areas
  • secretes/makes a substance with a higher protein/lipid percentage
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43
Q

where to endocrine glands secrete their products?

A

bloodstream

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44
Q

where (specifically) is the arrector pili muscle and how does it function?

A
  • attached to both the epidermis/epidermis-dermis interface and the hair follicle itself
  • job: to contract and cause the hair follicle and shaft to stand up on end (goosebumps!)
  • contract when cold / as fight or flight response
  • increase surface area of skin to hold in body heat
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44
Q

what part of the hair is an epidermal structure?

A

the follicle

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44
Q

what is the lunule of the nail?

A

white bit of nail at base, where matrix is thickened

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44
Q

what is the growth zone of the hair?

A

the hair matrix

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44
Q

define anatomy and give examples of what would be studied in an anatomy class

A
  • anatomy: the study of parts, structure, form
  • ex: organs, blood vessels
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44
Q

what part of the integumentary system is made up of dead, highly keratinized cells?

A

the nails

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44
Q

what are the 11 organ systems?

A
  • integumentary
  • skeletal
  • muscular
  • nervous
  • endocrine
  • cardiovascular
  • lymphatic
  • respiratory
  • urinary
  • reproductive systems
  • digestive
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44
Q

what part of the nail is where the growth occurs?

A

the matrix of the nails

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44
Q

what does complementarity of structure and function mean? give an example

A
  • structure and function go together
  • function is dependent on structure
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45
Q

define physiology and give examples of what would be studied in a physiology class

A
  • how the parts function
  • ex: how the heart pumps blood
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45
Q

what are the structural levels of organization found in the human body?

A
  • chemical level
  • cellular level
  • tissue
  • organ
  • organ system
  • organism
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45
Q

what makes up the skeletal system

A

skeleton (bones)

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46
Q

what makes up the nervous system?

A

brain, spinal cord and nerves

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46
Q

what makes up the muscular system

A

muscles

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46
Q

what makes up the endocrine system?

A

glands and the hormones they produce

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46
Q

what makes up the integumentary system

A

skin, hair, nails

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47
Q

what makes up the cardiovascular system?

A

blood vessels and the heart

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47
Q

what makes up the lymphatic system?

A

system of lymphatic vessels and immune response cells

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48
Q

what makes up the respiratory system?

A

gas exchange, lungs

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49
Q

what makes up the digestive system?

A

mouth, esophagus, stomach, small and large intestines, etc.

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50
Q

what makes up the urinary system?

A

kidneys, bladder, urethra

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51
Q

define the directional term superior

A

cranial, higher up/above

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52
Q

define the directional term inferior

A

caudal, lower down/below

53
Q

define the directional term anterior

A

ventral/front

54
Q

define the directional term posterior

A

dorsal/back

55
Q

define the directional term medial

A

towards middle/center

56
Q

define the directional term lateral

A

further from center

57
Q

define the directional term intermediate

A

in between two other structures that are medial and lateral to it

58
Q

define the directional term proximal

A

used to describe limb attachment, closer to the point of attachment

59
Q

define the directional term distal

A

used to describe limp attachment, further from the point of attachment

60
Q

define the directional term superficial

A

closer to the surface/outside

61
Q

define the directional term deep

A

further inside

62
Q

planes of section: median (midsagittal)

A

divides body in L and R halves

63
Q

planes of section: frontal (coronal)

A

divides body into anterior and posterior sections

64
Q

planes of section: transverse

A

divides body into superior and inferior portions

65
Q

define homeostasis

A

the body’s ability to maintain stable internal conditions

66
Q

how does negative feedback homeostasis work?

A

acts to oppose the stimulus, gets body back to normal

67
Q

how is positive feedback different from negative feedback? what is an example?

A
  • moves a system further away from the target of equilibrium (enhances original stimulus)
  • ex: blood clotting and childbirth
68
Q

what are the four most abundant elements in the body?

A

C, N, O and H

69
Q

list the four organic compound categories that make us up

A

carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids

69
Q

explain the importance of water in the human body

A
  • water is a universal solvent (good transport medium)
  • most abundant inorganic compound in the body
  • high heat capacity and high heat of vaporization
  • used in chemical reactions
  • cushions organs
70
Q

what is the monomer or building block for carbohydrates

A

monosaccharide

71
Q

what is the monomer or building block for triglycerides

A

fatty acids

72
Q

what is the monomer or building block for proteins

A

amino acids

73
Q

what is monomer or building block for nucleic acids

A

nucleotide (phosphate, sugar base)

74
Q

describe the function of carbohydrates in the body

A

cellular fuel

75
Q

describe the function of triglycerides in the body

A

insulation, stored energy

76
Q

describe the function of proteins in the body

A

building structures, biological catalysts, transport, contraction, communication, defense

77
Q

describe the function of nucleic acids in the body

A

carry genetic information and code for proteins

78
Q

contrast saturated and unsaturated fatty acids

A

saturated:
- no C=C
- animal fats
- all fatty acid chains are linear
- solid at room temp

unsaturated:
- contains at least 1 C=C
- kink/bend in chain
- liquid at room temp
- plant products

79
Q

describe primary protein structure

A

simplest structure

80
Q

describe secondary protein structure

A

primary structure bends and folds to form this

81
Q

describe tertiary protein structure

A

globular structure

82
Q

what are the three main animal cell parts?

A

nucleus, cytoplasm, plasma membrane

83
Q

describe the cellular function of the mitochondria

A
  • energy converting organelle
  • double membrane (inner and outer)
  • glucose breakdown, energy stored in ATP
  • self-replicating (has its own chromosome)
84
Q

describe the cellular function of the ribosomes

A
  • made of rRNA and ribosomal protein
  • can be free or attached to RER
  • protein synthesis
85
Q

describe the cellular function of the RER and SER

A
  • RER: receive and transport proteins within cell
  • SER: lacks ribosomes, involved in lipid metabolism
86
Q

describe the cellular function of the Golgi apparatus

A
  • functions where RER leaves off
  • protein modification, packaging and export via secretory vesicles
87
Q

describe the cellular function of secretory vesicles

A

form from the trans Golgi network, and they release their contents to the cell exterior by exocytosis in response to extracellular signals

88
Q

describe the cellular function of lysosomes

A
  • “garbage disposal”
  • contain digestive enzymes to digest unwanted materials
89
Q

describe the cellular function of peroxisomes

A
  • contain enzymes to detoxify
  • disarms free radicals
90
Q

where are lysozymes abundant?

A

in phagocytes

91
Q

what do cells use flagellum for? what is an example in humans?

A
  • single, movement of whole cell
  • only example in humans is sperm!
92
Q

what do cells use cilia for? example in humans?

A
  • numerous in number, move substances across cell surface
  • found in respiratory system (trachea) and in oviducts
93
Q

what do cells use use microvilli for? example in humans?

A
  • increase surface area for absorption, extensions of plasma membrane, little finger-like projections
  • small intestine cells
94
Q

describe the structure of the cell membrane and the phospholipid (include polar heads and nonpolar tails, fluid mosaic and bilayer).

A
  • phospholipid bilayer (polar heads facing out, non-polar tails in, only 7-10 nm thick)
  • flexible, mixed composition
    -contains membrane proteins
95
Q

how does cholesterol function in the membrane? what type of organic compound is cholesterol?

A
  • more cholesterol = more rigidity
  • cholesterol is a steroid
96
Q

what role do many of the membrane proteins play?

A

allow for transport across/through the plasma membrane

97
Q

contrast tight junctions, gap junctions and desmosomes and give examples

A
  • tight junctions: held together tightly so that there is no leakage. ex: epithelial cells lining the GI tract
  • desmosome: looks like Velcro, very flexible, allows for cells to move against one another but not come apart. ex: cardiac muscle cells
  • gap junctions: allow for ions to move between cells and therefore, communication between groups of cells. ex: cardiac cells have gap junctions as well
98
Q

what is an aquaporin?

A

a protein channel for water

99
Q

what are the different forms of passive transport? why are they considered passive?

A
  • considered passive because it doesn’t require energy
  • simple diffusion, facilitated diffusion, osmosis
100
Q

describe simple diffusion

A

-molecules spread out from higher to lower concentrations
- unassisted movement
- used by small, lipid-soluble (non-polar) substances (ex: O2, CO2, fat soluble vitamins)

101
Q

describe facilitated diffusion and the two types

A
  • substances need a facilitator to move from high to low concentration
  • carrier mediated: transported by a carrier
  • channel mediated: a channel is used to transport ions
102
Q

describe osmosis

A
  • the diffusion of water
  • uses aquaporins
103
Q

how does active transport differ from passive?

A
  • does require energy
  • moving from low to high concentrations
104
Q

contrast endo- and exocytosis

A
  • both are bulk active transport using vesicles for transport, membrane fusion
  • endo: the ingestion/taking in of small (pinocytosis) or large particles (phagocytosis) by a cell via membrane fusion
  • exo: a cells way to expel, in bulk, an amount of contents
105
Q

define histology

A

the study of microscopic structure of tissues

106
Q

what are the general characteristics of epithelial tissues?

A
  • covers and line organs, covers all body surfaces
  • tight fitting cells (tight junctions, desmosomes)
  • free (apical) surface and attached (basal) surface
  • rests on basement membrane
  • avascular and innervated
  • capable of regeneration
107
Q

what are tissues made up of and list the 4 basic tissue types?

A
  • 4 basic tissue types: muscle, nervous, connective epithelial
  • muscle: muscular cells
  • nervous: neurons/nervous cells
  • connective: cells, fibers, gel-like substance
  • epithelial: epithelial cells
108
Q

contrast apical and basal layer of epithelium

A

the apical cells appear squamous, whereas the basal layer contains either columnar or cuboidal cells

109
Q

what are tight junctions and desmosomes?

A

connections between cells

110
Q

what is the basement membrane and why is it located beneath all epithelial tissue?

A
  • supports epithelial tissue
  • the BM is important for providing physical and biochemical cues to the overlying cells, sculpting the tissue into its correct size and shape
111
Q

what are the 6 types of epithelial tissue?

A
  • simple squamous epithelia
  • simple cuboidal epithelia
  • simple columnar epithelia
  • stratified squamous epithelia
  • pseudostratified columnar epithelia
  • transitional epithelia
112
Q

describe simple squamous epithelia (function, location)

A
  • very thin
  • allows for diffusion, filtration and secretion
  • location: blood vessel inner lining (endothelium), air sacs of lungs, kidney glomeruli, serous membranes
113
Q

describe simple cuboidal epithelia (function, location)

A
  • function: secretion and absorption
  • location: exocrine glands and ducts, ovary surface
114
Q

describe simple columnar epithelia (function, location)

A
  • functions: secretion (mucous membranes, mucus by goblet cells, enzyme secretion), absorption, propulsion,
  • location: digestive tract lining, uterine tubes (ciliated)
115
Q

describe stratified squamous epithelia (function, location)

A
  • can be keratinized or non-keratinized
  • functions: protection of underlying tissues
  • locations: skin epidermis (keratinized), mouth, esophagus, vagina (non-keratinized)
116
Q

describe transitional epithelium (function, location)

A
  • structure: basal (cuboidal or columnar) cells, surface cells (dome, squamous as stretched)
  • functions: stretches to permit distension
  • locations: urinary bladder lining, ureter lining
117
Q

describe pseudostratified (ciliated) columnar epithelia (structure, function, location)

A
  • structure: not actually layered, nuclei do not line up as they do in simple columnar, cells vary in height
  • function: secretion (mucous membranes, mucus by goblet cells), propulsion
  • location: trachea, URT
118
Q

what is the cutaneous membrane?

A

the slick membranes that line the ventral body cavity and cover the organs in that body cavity

119
Q

where are mucous membranes found?

A

opening of body cavities that are open to exterior

120
Q

describe serous membranes (double membrane, location)

A
  • membrane that lines a cavity without an opening to the outside of the body (except for joint cavities, which have a synovial membrane); serosa
  • occurs in pairs: the parietal (which lines a specific portion of the wall of the ventral body cavity) and visceral layer (which covers the outside of the organs in that cavity)
120
Q

what are the general characteristics of connective tissue?

A
  • differing levels of vascularization
  • ECM
  • cells
121
Q

describe the extracellular matrix (location and composition)

A
  • outside of the cell
  • ground substance, fibers
122
Q

what type of membrane lines all body cavities that are open to the exterior?

A

lamina propria

122
Q

what are the 8 types of connective tissue?

A
  • bone (osseus)
  • cartilage (hyaline and fibrocartilage)
  • dense connective tissue
  • areolar connective tissue
  • adipose (fat) tissue
  • reticular connective tissue
  • blood
123
Q

describe bone/osseus tissue (structure, location, function, etc.)

A
  • structure: osteocytes, calcified ECM, collagen fibers
  • functions: support, protection, movement
  • location: bones
124
Q

describe cartilage/hyaline tissue (structure, location, function, etc.)

A
  • hyaline is most abundant cartilage tissue
  • structure: chondrocytes (cartilage cells). abundant collagen fibers (imperceptible), glassy matrix (because collagen fibers are very fine)
  • functions: support, reinforcement, resists compression, cushion
  • locations: embryonic skeleton (most), ends of long bones, cartilages of trachea and larynx, costal cartilage (ribs)
125
Q

describe cartilage/fibrocartilage (structure, location, function, etc.)

A
  • structure: chondrocytes, thick collagen fibers (wavy in appearance)
  • function: shock absorption
  • locations: intervertebral discs, menisci of knee joint, pubic symphysis
126
Q

describe dense fibrous connective tissue (structure, location, function, etc.)

A
  • structure: fibroblasts, thick, dense rows of collagen fibers, rope-like
  • functions: attachment, great tensile strength
  • locations: tendons, ligaments, dermis
127
Q

describe reticular connective tissue (structure, location, function, etc.)

A
  • structure: loose ground substance, reticular fibers and cells
  • function: soft internal skeleton
  • location: spleen, lymph nodes, bone marrow
128
Q

describe areolar connective tissue (structure, location, function, etc.)

A
  • structure: fibroblast, gel-like matrix, all 3 fiber types (elastic, collagen and reticular)
  • function: wraps, cushions organs, holds fluid (edema), lamina propria
  • location: very widespread in body, under epithelial tissue, around organs
129
Q

describe dense adipose (fat tissue) (structure, location, function, etc.)

A
  • structure: packed adipocytes (filled with large oil droplet), sparse matrix,
  • function: reserve fuel, insulates, support, protects organs
  • location: under skin (hypodermis) around organs, fat deposits
130
Q

what cell type is found in bone tissue?

A

osteocytes

131
Q

what cell type is found in cartilage tissue?

A

chondrocytes

132
Q

describe simple epithelium

A

one layer of cells

132
Q

what are the 3 types of muscle tissue

A
  • skeletal
  • smooth
  • cardiac
133
Q

what are the cell types that make up nervous tissue? where is nervous tissue found?

A
  • structure: neurons, neuroglia (supporting cells)
  • location: brain, spinal chord, nerves
134
Q

where are desmosomes found?

A

in areas of high mechanical stress

135
Q

describe stratified epithelium

A

more than one layer of cells/many layers

136
Q

describe squamous cells

A

flat in shape, make up middle and outer layers of skin

137
Q

describe cuboidal cells

A

cubed shape cells

138
Q

describe columnal cells

A

longer cells, nuclei typically level with one another

139
Q

peritoneum

A

the serosa lining the abdominal cavity and covering its organs

140
Q

the epidermis is made up of _____ while the dermis is made up of ______

A

stratified squamous epithelium, dense irregular connective tissue

141
Q

both collagen and elastic fibers are found throughout the _______

A

dermis

142
Q

_______ join muscle to bone

A

tendons

143
Q

_______ join bone to bone

A

ligaments

144
Q

describe blood (as connective tissue, structure, function, location, etc.)

A
  • structure: blood cells (white, red, platelets), liquid matrix
  • function: transport
  • location: contained within blood vessels
145
Q

T/ F: non-keratinized stratified squamous cells are dead

A

false

146
Q

describe skeletal muscle tissue (structure, function, location)

A
  • structure: long fibers, multinucleate cells, striated
  • function: voluntary movement
  • location: attached to bones (with the exception of some attached to skin, like ones in face)
147
Q

describe smooth muscle tissue (structure, function, location)

A
  • structure: spindle-shaped fibers, uninucleate, not striated
  • function: propels substances
  • location: walls of hollow organs
148
Q

describe cardiac muscle tissue (structure, function, location)

A
  • structure: branched fibers, uninucleate, striated with intercalated discs (junction between cardiac muscle cells)
  • function: involuntary contraction of heart (pumps)
  • location: heart

Human Biology (5 decks)

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