Exam 1 Flashcards
A needle would pierce the skin of the forearm in which order?
(1) stratum basale; (2) stratum granulosum; (3) stratum spinosum; (4) stratum corneum; (5) stratum lucidum
4-2-3-1
Lamellar corpuscles __________.
- are deep pressure-sensitive receptors
- are located at the epidermal-dermal junction
- project superficially to indent the epidermis
- contain free nerve endings for the perception of pain
are deep pressure-sensitive receptors
Select all of the functions of skin.
- Protects internal body structures
- Regulates body temperature
- Synthesizes vitamin C
- Excretes waste products
- Stores calcium
- Protects internal body structures
- Regulates body temperature
- Excretes waste products
Select all of the true statements regarding the pigment melanin.
- Melanin protects the nuclei of keratinocytes from ultraviolet (UV) radiation.
- Melanin production increases in the absence of sunlight exposure.
- Freckles and moles appear where melanin concentrates in one spot.
- Star-shaped epidermal dendritic cells produce melanin.
- Melanin ranges in color from yellow to brown to black.
- Melanin ranges in color from yellow to brown to black.
- Melanin protects the nuclei of keratinocytes from ultraviolet (UV) radiation.
- Freckles and moles appear where melanin concentrates in one spot.
One important role of the skin is to produce __________, which is essential for normal calcium absorption.
vitamin D
The epidermis is predominately composed of __________ tissue.
epithelial
As cells progress from the deeper portion of the epidermis toward the surface, __________.
they become flatter and die
Select the terms that relate to hair.
- Follicle
- Free edge
- Bulb
- Sheath
- Lunule
follicle, bulb, sheath
The __________ is the avascular, keratinized layer of skin.
epidermis
most numerous cells of the epidermis
keratinocytes
produce the pigment melanin
melanocytes
sensitive to touch
Merkel cells
help fight infection
epidermal dendritic cells
the type of tissue that makes up the bulk of the dermis is _________
dense irregular connective tissue
Which glands produce the oily secretion called sebum?
sebaceous glands
Select all of the true statements regarding the significance of alterations in skin color.
- Bruises reveal sites where blood has escaped from the circulation and formed hematomas.
- Blanching (or pallor) may indicate embarrassment, fever, inflammation, or hypertension.
- Jaundice usually signifies a liver disorder in which excess bile pigments are deposited in body tissues.
- Erythema may indicate anemia and low blood pressure.
- Jaundice usually signifies a liver disorder in which excess bile pigments are deposited in body tissues.
- Bruises reveal sites where blood has escaped from the circulation and formed hematomas.
Sebaceous glands are usually associated with __________.
hair follicles
Hair, nails, and the outer layer of the skin are made mostly of a tough protein called __________.
keratin
Mitosis occurs in which layer of the epidermis?
- Stratum corneum
- Stratum basale
- Stratum granulosum
- Stratum lucidum
- Reticular layer
stratum basale
what is the outermost layer of the skin?
the epidermis
what are two epidermal strucutres?
hair follicle and sebaceous glands
describe the hypodermis
subcutaneous layer of fat
what are the three layers of skin?
epidermis, dermis, hypodermis
where are melanocytes found?
the stratum basale
how often does the skin regenerate?
every 30-45 days
what are the layers of the epidermis? what cell types are they made of?
- made up of stratified squamous epithelium
- base layer: stratum basale
- stratum spinosum
- stratum granulosum
- stratum corneum
- stratum lucidum
describe the stratum basale
- the mitotic layer of the epidermis, actively dividing
- made up of melanocytes + single layer of keratinocytes + the occasional Merkel cell
describe the stratum spinosum
cells contain thick bundles of intermediate filaments made of pre-keratin
describe the stratum granulosum
- cells are flattened, organelles are deteriorating, cytoplasm full of granules
- cells still have nuclei
describe the stratum corneum
- cells no longer have nucleus
- cells are flat, membranous sacs filled with keratin
what makes the skin water resistant?
glycolipids in extracellular space
describe the stratum lucidum
- found in areas of the body with thicker skin (palms of the hands, soles of the feet)
- found between the granulosum and corneum layers
what are the two layers of the dermis?
the papillary layer and the reticular layer
characterize the papillary layer (location, structure, function)
- upper layer of the dermis, less thick
- made up of areolar connective tissue
- forms cone-shaped ridges called the dermal papillae
characterize the reticular layer of the dermis
- lower layer
- made up of dense, irregular connective tissue
- very tough and strong but flexible
what are dermal papillae (structure and function)
- cone shaped ridges, contain blood vessels, nerve endings, etc. that help to support the overlaying epidermis
- can be arranged in certain parts of the body (palms and soles) in particular patterns that increase the friction of those structures
define/describe exocrine glands
- cutaneous
- all have a duct, and the duct delivers what the gland is making to the epithelium surface
define/describe sebaceous glands, what kind of gland is it an example of?
- example of exocrine glands
- make substance called sebum
- always connected to a hair follicle
- secrete the oil (sebum) and it moves out through the pores and to the surface of the skin
what is the job of sedum/oil?
- to lubricate hair/skin, make it more pliable/soften it
- also has antibacterial capabilities
describe/define sweat glands. what kind of glands are they an example of?
- example of exocrine glands
- coiled structures that originate in the dermis and then through the duct to the surface
- sweat is delivered through a pore to the surface of the skin
what are the two types of sweat glands?
- eccrine
- apocrine
describe eccrine sweat glands
- widespread throughout the body, make a watery sweat that contains sweat, urea and uric acid
- responsible for releasing body heat
describe apocrine glands
- localized to axillary (armpit) region of the body and the genital areas
- secretes/makes a substance with a higher protein/lipid percentage
where to endocrine glands secrete their products?
bloodstream
where (specifically) is the arrector pili muscle and how does it function?
- attached to both the epidermis/epidermis-dermis interface and the hair follicle itself
- job: to contract and cause the hair follicle and shaft to stand up on end (goosebumps!)
- contract when cold / as fight or flight response
- increase surface area of skin to hold in body heat
what part of the hair is an epidermal structure?
the follicle
what is the lunule of the nail?
white bit of nail at base, where matrix is thickened
what is the growth zone of the hair?
the hair matrix
define anatomy and give examples of what would be studied in an anatomy class
- anatomy: the study of parts, structure, form
- ex: organs, blood vessels
what part of the integumentary system is made up of dead, highly keratinized cells?
the nails
what are the 11 organ systems?
- integumentary
- skeletal
- muscular
- nervous
- endocrine
- cardiovascular
- lymphatic
- respiratory
- urinary
- reproductive systems
- digestive
what part of the nail is where the growth occurs?
the matrix of the nails
what does complementarity of structure and function mean? give an example
- structure and function go together
- function is dependent on structure
define physiology and give examples of what would be studied in a physiology class
- how the parts function
- ex: how the heart pumps blood
what are the structural levels of organization found in the human body?
- chemical level
- cellular level
- tissue
- organ
- organ system
- organism
what makes up the skeletal system
skeleton (bones)
what makes up the nervous system?
brain, spinal cord and nerves
what makes up the muscular system
muscles
what makes up the endocrine system?
glands and the hormones they produce
what makes up the integumentary system
skin, hair, nails
what makes up the cardiovascular system?
blood vessels and the heart
what makes up the lymphatic system?
system of lymphatic vessels and immune response cells
what makes up the respiratory system?
gas exchange, lungs
what makes up the digestive system?
mouth, esophagus, stomach, small and large intestines, etc.
what makes up the urinary system?
kidneys, bladder, urethra
define the directional term superior
cranial, higher up/above
define the directional term inferior
caudal, lower down/below
define the directional term anterior
ventral/front
define the directional term posterior
dorsal/back
define the directional term medial
towards middle/center
define the directional term lateral
further from center
define the directional term intermediate
in between two other structures that are medial and lateral to it
define the directional term proximal
used to describe limb attachment, closer to the point of attachment
define the directional term distal
used to describe limp attachment, further from the point of attachment
define the directional term superficial
closer to the surface/outside
define the directional term deep
further inside
planes of section: median (midsagittal)
divides body in L and R halves
planes of section: frontal (coronal)
divides body into anterior and posterior sections
planes of section: transverse
divides body into superior and inferior portions
define homeostasis
the body’s ability to maintain stable internal conditions
how does negative feedback homeostasis work?
acts to oppose the stimulus, gets body back to normal
how is positive feedback different from negative feedback? what is an example?
- moves a system further away from the target of equilibrium (enhances original stimulus)
- ex: blood clotting and childbirth
what are the four most abundant elements in the body?
C, N, O and H
list the four organic compound categories that make us up
carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids
explain the importance of water in the human body
- water is a universal solvent (good transport medium)
- most abundant inorganic compound in the body
- high heat capacity and high heat of vaporization
- used in chemical reactions
- cushions organs
what is the monomer or building block for carbohydrates
monosaccharide
what is the monomer or building block for triglycerides
fatty acids
what is the monomer or building block for proteins
amino acids
what is monomer or building block for nucleic acids
nucleotide (phosphate, sugar base)
describe the function of carbohydrates in the body
cellular fuel
describe the function of triglycerides in the body
insulation, stored energy
describe the function of proteins in the body
building structures, biological catalysts, transport, contraction, communication, defense
describe the function of nucleic acids in the body
carry genetic information and code for proteins
contrast saturated and unsaturated fatty acids
saturated:
- no C=C
- animal fats
- all fatty acid chains are linear
- solid at room temp
unsaturated:
- contains at least 1 C=C
- kink/bend in chain
- liquid at room temp
- plant products
describe primary protein structure
simplest structure
describe secondary protein structure
primary structure bends and folds to form this
describe tertiary protein structure
globular structure
what are the three main animal cell parts?
nucleus, cytoplasm, plasma membrane
describe the cellular function of the mitochondria
- energy converting organelle
- double membrane (inner and outer)
- glucose breakdown, energy stored in ATP
- self-replicating (has its own chromosome)
describe the cellular function of the ribosomes
- made of rRNA and ribosomal protein
- can be free or attached to RER
- protein synthesis
describe the cellular function of the RER and SER
- RER: receive and transport proteins within cell
- SER: lacks ribosomes, involved in lipid metabolism
describe the cellular function of the Golgi apparatus
- functions where RER leaves off
- protein modification, packaging and export via secretory vesicles
describe the cellular function of secretory vesicles
form from the trans Golgi network, and they release their contents to the cell exterior by exocytosis in response to extracellular signals
describe the cellular function of lysosomes
- “garbage disposal”
- contain digestive enzymes to digest unwanted materials
describe the cellular function of peroxisomes
- contain enzymes to detoxify
- disarms free radicals
where are lysozymes abundant?
in phagocytes
what do cells use flagellum for? what is an example in humans?
- single, movement of whole cell
- only example in humans is sperm!
what do cells use cilia for? example in humans?
- numerous in number, move substances across cell surface
- found in respiratory system (trachea) and in oviducts
what do cells use use microvilli for? example in humans?
- increase surface area for absorption, extensions of plasma membrane, little finger-like projections
- small intestine cells
describe the structure of the cell membrane and the phospholipid (include polar heads and nonpolar tails, fluid mosaic and bilayer).
- phospholipid bilayer (polar heads facing out, non-polar tails in, only 7-10 nm thick)
- flexible, mixed composition
-contains membrane proteins
how does cholesterol function in the membrane? what type of organic compound is cholesterol?
- more cholesterol = more rigidity
- cholesterol is a steroid
what role do many of the membrane proteins play?
allow for transport across/through the plasma membrane
contrast tight junctions, gap junctions and desmosomes and give examples
- tight junctions: held together tightly so that there is no leakage. ex: epithelial cells lining the GI tract
- desmosome: looks like Velcro, very flexible, allows for cells to move against one another but not come apart. ex: cardiac muscle cells
- gap junctions: allow for ions to move between cells and therefore, communication between groups of cells. ex: cardiac cells have gap junctions as well
what is an aquaporin?
a protein channel for water
what are the different forms of passive transport? why are they considered passive?
- considered passive because it doesn’t require energy
- simple diffusion, facilitated diffusion, osmosis
describe simple diffusion
-molecules spread out from higher to lower concentrations
- unassisted movement
- used by small, lipid-soluble (non-polar) substances (ex: O2, CO2, fat soluble vitamins)
describe facilitated diffusion and the two types
- substances need a facilitator to move from high to low concentration
- carrier mediated: transported by a carrier
- channel mediated: a channel is used to transport ions
describe osmosis
- the diffusion of water
- uses aquaporins
how does active transport differ from passive?
- does require energy
- moving from low to high concentrations
contrast endo- and exocytosis
- both are bulk active transport using vesicles for transport, membrane fusion
- endo: the ingestion/taking in of small (pinocytosis) or large particles (phagocytosis) by a cell via membrane fusion
- exo: a cells way to expel, in bulk, an amount of contents
define histology
the study of microscopic structure of tissues
what are the general characteristics of epithelial tissues?
- covers and line organs, covers all body surfaces
- tight fitting cells (tight junctions, desmosomes)
- free (apical) surface and attached (basal) surface
- rests on basement membrane
- avascular and innervated
- capable of regeneration
what are tissues made up of and list the 4 basic tissue types?
- 4 basic tissue types: muscle, nervous, connective epithelial
- muscle: muscular cells
- nervous: neurons/nervous cells
- connective: cells, fibers, gel-like substance
- epithelial: epithelial cells
contrast apical and basal layer of epithelium
the apical cells appear squamous, whereas the basal layer contains either columnar or cuboidal cells
what are tight junctions and desmosomes?
connections between cells
what is the basement membrane and why is it located beneath all epithelial tissue?
- supports epithelial tissue
- the BM is important for providing physical and biochemical cues to the overlying cells, sculpting the tissue into its correct size and shape
what are the 6 types of epithelial tissue?
- simple squamous epithelia
- simple cuboidal epithelia
- simple columnar epithelia
- stratified squamous epithelia
- pseudostratified columnar epithelia
- transitional epithelia
describe simple squamous epithelia (function, location)
- very thin
- allows for diffusion, filtration and secretion
- location: blood vessel inner lining (endothelium), air sacs of lungs, kidney glomeruli, serous membranes
describe simple cuboidal epithelia (function, location)
- function: secretion and absorption
- location: exocrine glands and ducts, ovary surface
describe simple columnar epithelia (function, location)
- functions: secretion (mucous membranes, mucus by goblet cells, enzyme secretion), absorption, propulsion,
- location: digestive tract lining, uterine tubes (ciliated)
describe stratified squamous epithelia (function, location)
- can be keratinized or non-keratinized
- functions: protection of underlying tissues
- locations: skin epidermis (keratinized), mouth, esophagus, vagina (non-keratinized)
describe transitional epithelium (function, location)
- structure: basal (cuboidal or columnar) cells, surface cells (dome, squamous as stretched)
- functions: stretches to permit distension
- locations: urinary bladder lining, ureter lining
describe pseudostratified (ciliated) columnar epithelia (structure, function, location)
- structure: not actually layered, nuclei do not line up as they do in simple columnar, cells vary in height
- function: secretion (mucous membranes, mucus by goblet cells), propulsion
- location: trachea, URT
what is the cutaneous membrane?
the slick membranes that line the ventral body cavity and cover the organs in that body cavity
where are mucous membranes found?
opening of body cavities that are open to exterior
describe serous membranes (double membrane, location)
- membrane that lines a cavity without an opening to the outside of the body (except for joint cavities, which have a synovial membrane); serosa
- occurs in pairs: the parietal (which lines a specific portion of the wall of the ventral body cavity) and visceral layer (which covers the outside of the organs in that cavity)
what are the general characteristics of connective tissue?
- differing levels of vascularization
- ECM
- cells
describe the extracellular matrix (location and composition)
- outside of the cell
- ground substance, fibers
what type of membrane lines all body cavities that are open to the exterior?
lamina propria
what are the 8 types of connective tissue?
- bone (osseus)
- cartilage (hyaline and fibrocartilage)
- dense connective tissue
- areolar connective tissue
- adipose (fat) tissue
- reticular connective tissue
- blood
describe bone/osseus tissue (structure, location, function, etc.)
- structure: osteocytes, calcified ECM, collagen fibers
- functions: support, protection, movement
- location: bones
describe cartilage/hyaline tissue (structure, location, function, etc.)
- hyaline is most abundant cartilage tissue
- structure: chondrocytes (cartilage cells). abundant collagen fibers (imperceptible), glassy matrix (because collagen fibers are very fine)
- functions: support, reinforcement, resists compression, cushion
- locations: embryonic skeleton (most), ends of long bones, cartilages of trachea and larynx, costal cartilage (ribs)
describe cartilage/fibrocartilage (structure, location, function, etc.)
- structure: chondrocytes, thick collagen fibers (wavy in appearance)
- function: shock absorption
- locations: intervertebral discs, menisci of knee joint, pubic symphysis
describe dense fibrous connective tissue (structure, location, function, etc.)
- structure: fibroblasts, thick, dense rows of collagen fibers, rope-like
- functions: attachment, great tensile strength
- locations: tendons, ligaments, dermis
describe reticular connective tissue (structure, location, function, etc.)
- structure: loose ground substance, reticular fibers and cells
- function: soft internal skeleton
- location: spleen, lymph nodes, bone marrow
describe areolar connective tissue (structure, location, function, etc.)
- structure: fibroblast, gel-like matrix, all 3 fiber types (elastic, collagen and reticular)
- function: wraps, cushions organs, holds fluid (edema), lamina propria
- location: very widespread in body, under epithelial tissue, around organs
describe dense adipose (fat tissue) (structure, location, function, etc.)
- structure: packed adipocytes (filled with large oil droplet), sparse matrix,
- function: reserve fuel, insulates, support, protects organs
- location: under skin (hypodermis) around organs, fat deposits
what cell type is found in bone tissue?
osteocytes
what cell type is found in cartilage tissue?
chondrocytes
describe simple epithelium
one layer of cells
what are the 3 types of muscle tissue
- skeletal
- smooth
- cardiac
what are the cell types that make up nervous tissue? where is nervous tissue found?
- structure: neurons, neuroglia (supporting cells)
- location: brain, spinal chord, nerves
where are desmosomes found?
in areas of high mechanical stress
describe stratified epithelium
more than one layer of cells/many layers
describe squamous cells
flat in shape, make up middle and outer layers of skin
describe cuboidal cells
cubed shape cells
describe columnal cells
longer cells, nuclei typically level with one another
peritoneum
the serosa lining the abdominal cavity and covering its organs
the epidermis is made up of _____ while the dermis is made up of ______
stratified squamous epithelium, dense irregular connective tissue
both collagen and elastic fibers are found throughout the _______
dermis
_______ join muscle to bone
tendons
_______ join bone to bone
ligaments
describe blood (as connective tissue, structure, function, location, etc.)
- structure: blood cells (white, red, platelets), liquid matrix
- function: transport
- location: contained within blood vessels
T/ F: non-keratinized stratified squamous cells are dead
false
describe skeletal muscle tissue (structure, function, location)
- structure: long fibers, multinucleate cells, striated
- function: voluntary movement
- location: attached to bones (with the exception of some attached to skin, like ones in face)
describe smooth muscle tissue (structure, function, location)
- structure: spindle-shaped fibers, uninucleate, not striated
- function: propels substances
- location: walls of hollow organs
describe cardiac muscle tissue (structure, function, location)
- structure: branched fibers, uninucleate, striated with intercalated discs (junction between cardiac muscle cells)
- function: involuntary contraction of heart (pumps)
- location: heart
