Exam 1

Question 0

Identify the main structural parts of a generalized prokaryotic cell and describe their functions

Answer 0

Membranous Intrusion
Mesosomes - membrane invaginations
These help with reproduction and metabolism

Membranous Extrusions
Pilli - Cause disease attach and inject toxin to host cell,
transfer genetic material
Flagella - function is motility

Question 1

Define cell doctrine.

Answer 1

1. All animals and plants are composed of cells
2. Each cell can live in the absence of others
3. The cells arise only from other cells

Question 2

Describe Schleiden and Schwann’s cell theory and Virchow’s cell lineage theory.

Also define a cell.

Answer 2

Schlemiel and Schwann cell theory is parts 1 and 2 of cell doctrine.

Virchow cell lineage theory is most diseases start at the cellular level. Part 3 of doctrine was him.

A cell is the basic unit of life. Has definite boundary with which there is constant flow of energy and chemical activity

Question 3

Discuss morphological variation among different types of eukaryotic cells. 6 items

Answer 3

RBCs, fibroblast cells, neurons, bone cells, muscle (smooth cardiac and skeletal) and retinal rod cells.

Question 4

Identify the main structural parts of a generalized eukaryotic cell and describe their functions

Answer 4

System of membranes, both exo and endoplasmic

Cytoplasmic matrix where organelles are found

Number of organelles some membranous others non.

Question 5

Describe the two types of prokaryotic cells

Answer 5

Eubacteria - true bacteria, present day live in soil and cause sickness. Example is Cyanobacteria

Archaebacteria - modern descendent of ancient prokaryotes, examples are methano, halo, suflo, bacteria and thermacidophiles

Question 6

Similarities between prokaryotes and eukaryotes 3

Answer 6

Genetic material is DNA

A membrane surrounds the cell

Ribosomes found in both types of cells

Question 7

Describe diffences between pro and euk 5

Answer 7

No membrane around nucleus (pro) or double membrane (euk)

Binary fission (pro) or mitosis (euk)

Simple or complex nutritional requirements

Rapid growth and division (pro) or varies (euk)

Little or no membrane bound organelle (pro) or bunch (euk)

Question 8

Describe the differences between inorganic and organic components of the cell.

Answer 8

Inorganic - small ionically bonded molecules w no carbons
Water and salts/ions

Organic - large carbon containing covalently bonded compounds

            Proteins, lipids, carbs, nucleic acids, ATP, cyclic amp

Question 10

Discuss why water is a vital compound in the living systems. List functions (5)

Answer 10

It is the most abundant substance in living cells

Superb solvent and suspending medium

Used to eliminate waste materials

Participates in chemical reactions (dehydration and hydrolysis)

Absorbs and releases heat very slowly

Serves as lubricant

Question 11

Know the concentrations of cations and anions in the intracellular fluid and the interstitial fluid

Answer 11

Page 15 in Cell pays book…..COME BACK TO

Question 12

Know the main functions of calcium ions in the cells and in the body. 6.

Answer 12

Bone formation
Teeth formation
Regulatory cofactor in muscle contraction
Act as cofactor in enzymatic activities
Role in blood clotting
Can affect cell secretion (endocrine and exocrine)

Question 13

Understand the clinical significance of hypercalcemia and hypocalcemia and their effects on the nervous system.

Answer 13

Hypercalcemia - decreased neuronal membrane permeability to Na+ ions. Na+ activation gates closed

Hypocalcemia - Increased permeability to Na+ so increased excitability…Tetany

Question 14

Identify reasons for the occurrence of osteoporosis and osteomalacia.

Answer 14

Osteoporosis causes
not enough Ca+ in diet
Hormonal deficiency (low estrogen; calcitonin)

Osteomalacia causes
Ca2+ or P concentration abnormalities
Abnormalities of VitD metabolism
Absorption problems

Question 15

Also discuss functions of phosphates in the body and their clinical implications. 5

Answer 15

Formation of bones and teeth along with calcium

Maintain structural integrity of cell membrane

Used to make ATP

Essential components of organic compounds in cell

Act as buffer

Clinical disorders are Osteoporosis (chronic) and reduced buffer (acute)

Question 16

Learn the types and functions of iron in the body.

Answer 16

Functional Iron
Hemoglobin majority iron
Myoglobin small portion in muscle cells
In enzymes like cytochrome oxidase in mito

Storage Iron
Ferritin in the liver and spleen, soluble
Hemosiderin in liver and spleen, insoluble
Transferrin iron carrier protein in blood

Functions
carrier of O2 and CO2 in hemo/myoglobin
Role in blood formation
other functions act as coenzymes/catalysts

Question 17

Describe how iron is involved in blood formation and what are the causes of microcytic anemia and macrocytic anemia.

What is the relationship of iron and cancer?

Answer 17

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Microcytic anemia caused by iron deficiency
Macrocytic anemia caused by cobalt or vitb12 deficiency - pernicious anemia

Increased iron contents in cells may increase risk. Because of assisting in production of free radicals

Question 18

Discuss the functions of copper in the cells and its clinical relevance.

Answer 18

Part of cytochrome oxidase system in mito

Part of enzyme tyrosinase

Associated with superoxide dismutase. Scavenging free radicals

Copper defiency rare in adults. Preme infants may suffer from anemia and cardiomyopathy. Cant synthesize enough cytochrome c oxidase

Question 19

Describe Proteins

Answer 19

Most have C, H, O, and N and some have S or P

Made of monomers which are AA

AA are linked by peptide bonds

Question 20

What are the 6 types of functional classifications of proteins?

Molecular classifications ? 3

Answer 20

Structural (extra and intracellular)
Contractile
Transport
Regulatory 
Catalytic
Immunological

Fibrous, Globular, and Conjugated

Question 21

What are the 6 main functions of proteins?

Answer 21

Major structural materials in animals (cellulose in plants)

All enzymes are proteins

Responsible for movment (actin myosin)

Transport of materials through circulatory system and also across the cell membrane

Antibodies are proteins

Clotting of blood requires the interaction of a number of proteins

Question 22

Describe carbohydrates and how are they classified?

Answer 22

Main sources of energy for the majority of the cells. Form structural components of the cell wall and intracellular materials.

Classified by the number of sugars they contain

Question 23

Describe Lipids, what are the main 4 functions of them

Answer 23

macromolecules that are soluble in organic compounds but not inorganic ones (like water)

fat synthesis and energy storage
synthesis of other compounds like membranes and hormones
insulation
specific biological functions

Question 24

Describe the energy sources of the liver, heart, muscle, and brain cells under normal and/or abnormal physiological conditions.

Answer 24

Liver - stores glycogen but its energy needs are satisfied by fats

Heart - 70% fatty acids and 30% carbs

Muscle - stores a ton of glycogen… energy source?????

Brain - SUGAR…glucose.

Question 25

Discuss ketone metabolism during starvation and uncontrolled diabetic condition.

Answer 25

Page 25 ??????????

Question 26

How many types of diabetes exist?

Answer 26

Type 1: Insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (IDDM) Type 2: Non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus Gestational: Glucose intolerance diagnosed in pregnancy. May Or may not continue after termination of preg.

Question 27

What are their characteristics? (type one vs type 2 diabetes)

Answer 27

Type 1 - autoimmune destruction of beta cells, childhood onset, insulin deficiency, not related with obesity, ketoacidosis present Type 2 - Insulin resistance due to target cell receptor deficiency, adult onset, impaired beta cell function and insulin synthesis, obesity common, ketoacidosis possible under stress

Question 28

Describe long term complication of diabetes.

Answer 28

Retinopathy (visual problems, blindness) Neuropathy (diarrhea, impotence) foot ulcers and amputations Nephropathy CV Disease

Question 29

Know what is done for the diabetic patient assessment.

Answer 29

Blood glucose and hemoglobin A1C identifies patients who do not comply with treatment MIcroalbuminera, serum creatine and urine protein Eye exam ECG and neurologic exam Serum and libid levels Check my web site for new diabetic guidelines

Question 30

Describe other organic compounds such as nucleic acids, ATP, cyclic AMP, cyclic GMP and their functions.

Answer 30

Nucleic acids: Acids found in the nucleus. DNA and RNA examples. Most DNA in nucleus but RNA in cytosol. Functions of DNA are heredity and momement by moment functions of the cell. ATP: Adenine-Ribose+PPP stores 7.3 kcal energy. Function is principal energy storage compound in most cells Cyclic AMP: Adenine-Ribose+P Function is a second messenger in the hormonal system. First messenger is hormones.

Question 31

What are the three types of Inclusions in cells?

Answer 31

Granules, Pigments, and Crystals.

Question 32

Describe the type of granules in the body.

Answer 32

``` Glycogen Granules: Stored in skeletal muscle and liver Not encased in membrane. Function is homeostatic regulation of blood glucose. Insulin and Glucagon ``` Lipid Granules: Stored in adipose Not bounded by a membrane Functions are energy metabolism and synthesis of membranes and hormones. Secretion Granules: Located in secretory cells. They are enclosed by a membrane Zymogen granules - stored in pancreas and stomach cells Renin Granules - tubules cells of kidneys.

Question 33

Describe the types of Pigments in the body

Answer 33

Melanin: Dark brown pigment stored in melanocytes of the epidermis, epithelial cells of retina and iris. Lipofuscin: Tan, light brown pigment stored in skin cells. "aging spots." in older people. 2ndary lysosomes bodies that have residues cuz of Ferritin: Gold brown pigment stored in liver and spleen. Has iron- containing storage protein.

Question 34

Describe the types of Crystals in the body.

Answer 34

Solid - found as part of inorganic matrix of bone Liquid - fond as part of the myelin sheath of nerves

Question 35

Describe the ultrastructure of mitochondria. Discuss the role of cristae and respiratory stalks in energy production and why mitochondria are known as "power plants" of the cell.

Answer 35

Ultrastructure: Double membrane-bound organelles. Inner membrane infolded into transverse partitions called cristae. Cristae increase surface area to receive respiratory enzymes and to meet mitochondrial metabolic demands. Also provide sites for transport of electrons for ATP production. Powerhouse because convert potential energy of food into chemical energy. 95% of ATP produced by mito.

Question 36

Define cell metabolism. Include a discussion of catabolism, anabolism, exergonic and endergonic reactions . Give an overview of the pathways of metabolism, including but not limited to, defining chemical bond energy and its ultimate source, and types of energy that can be used by us humans for the performance of biological work. Also present an overview of cellular respiration

Answer 36

GEt to it

Question 37

Glycolysis ``` Location End Product Products Yeilded ATP Yeild Aerobic or Anerobic ```

Answer 37

``` Cytoplasm 2 pyruvate 2 NADH 2 ATP Anerobic by itself but may be part of aerobic pathway. ```

Question 38

Question 14 and 15

Answer 38

come back to later

Question 39

# Define glycogenesis: glycogenolysis: gluconeogenesis: lipogenesis: deamination and transamination:

Answer 39

Glucose not needed converts to glycogen in liver | COME BACK TOO

Question 40

Describe the functions and clinical implications of chromium, iodine, and zinc in the body.

Answer 40

Chromium: "glucose-tolerance factor" Enhances binding of insulin with receptors on target cells enhances glucose tolerance Iodine: rôle in growth and metabolism Zinc: Stimulates insulin release. Maintence of skin integrity and wound healing. Sexual maturity. Immunity. Cofactor Diabetics have Zn deficiency cuz they excrete Zn in glucose urine.