Exam 1 Flashcards
Chapters 1-3
define anatomy
study of the structure of body parts and their relationship to one another
define physiology
study of the function of body parts; how they work to carry out life-sustaining activities
what is the study of large, visible structures?
gross/macroscopic anatomy
what is the study of the structure of body parts and their relationship to one another?
anatomy
what is the study of the function of body parts; how they work to carry out life-sustaining activities?
physiology
define macroscopic anatomy
the study of large, visible structures
what is the principle of complementarity of structure and function?
anatomy and physiology are inseparable; function always reflects structure; what a structure can do depends on its specific form
anatomy and physiology are inseparable
principle of complementarity of structure and function
function always reflects structure
principle of complementarity of structure and function
what a structure can do depends on its specific form
principle of complementarity of structure and function
structural organization levels
- chemical level
- cellular level
- tissue level
- organ level
- organ system level
- organismal level
what is the chemical level?
atoms, molecules, and organelles
what is the cellular level?
single cells
what is the tissue level?
groups of similar cells
what is the organ level?
contains two or more types of tissues
what is the organ system level?
organs that work closely together
what is the organismal level?
all organ systems combined to make the whole organism
what level is made up of atoms, molecules, and organelles?
chemical level
what level is made up of single cells?
cellular level
what level is made up of groups of similar cells?
tissue level
what level is made up of two or more types of tissues?
organ level
what level is made up of organs that work closely together?
organ system level
what level is made up of all organ systems combined?
organismal level
abdominopelvic cavity is surrounded by the ____.
peritoneum
what is the peritoneum?
surrounds the abdominopelvic cavity
valence shell
outermost shell
outermost shell
valence shell
isotopes
structural variations of same element; same number of protons but different number of neutrons
____ has no neutrons in the nucleus.
hydrogen
____ already have a full 8 valence electrons.
noble gases
are ionic bonds or covalent bonds stronger?
covalent bonds
two types of covalent bonds
polar and nonpolar
____ bonds share electrons evenly.
nonpolar covalent
weakest bonds
hydrogen bonds
weakest to strongest bonds
hydrogen; ionic; covalent
strongest to weakest bonds
covalent; ionic; hydrogen
define gross anatomy
the study of large, visible structures
3 major subdivisions of anatomy
- macroscopic anatomy
- microscopic anatomy
- developmental anatomy
____ looks at all structures in a particular area of the body
regional anatomy
regional anatomy
looks at all structures in a particular area of the body
____ looks at just one system
systemic anatomy
systemic anatomy
looks at just one system
____ looks at internal structures as they relate to overlying skin
surface anatomy
surface anatomy
looks at internal structures as they relate to overlying skin
____ deals with structures too small to be seen by the naked eye
microscopic anatomy
microscopic anatomy
deals with structures too small to be seen by the naked eye
microscopic study of cells
cytology
cytology
microscopic study of cells
subdivisions of macroscopic anatomy
- regional
- systemic
- surface
microscopic study of tissues
histology
histology
microscopic study of tissues
subdivisions of microscopic anatomy
- cytology
- histology
____ studies anatomical and physiological development throughout life
developmental anatomy
developmental anatomy
studies anatomical and physiological development throughout life
subdivision of developmental anatomy
embryology
embryology
study of developments before birth
study of developments before birth
embryology
medical term for hear
auscultate
auscultate
hear
physiology at the cellular and molecular level looks at…
how the body’s abilities are dependent on chemical reactions in individual cells
to study physiology, one must understand ____ as well as ____
basic physical principles; basic chemical principles
examples of basic physical principles
electrical currents, pressure, and movement
structural organization from largest to smallest
organismal, organ system, organ, tissue, cellular, chemical
structural organization from smallest to largest
chemical, cellular, tissue, organ, organ system, organismal
maintenance of life involves
- maintaining boundaries
- movement
- responsiveness
- digestion
- metabolism
- excretion
- reproduction
- growth
maintaining boundaries
separation between internal and external environments must exist; plasma membranes separate cells; skin separates organism from environment
____ system allows movement
skeletal
____ separate cells
plasma membranes
____ separates organism from environment
skin
movement at the cellular level
contractility
contractility
movement at the cellular level
movement of ____ via skeletal muscles
body parts
movement of body parts via ____
skeletal muscles
movement of ____ via cardiac muscle and smooth muscle
substances
movement of substances via ____ and ____
cardiac and smooth muscle
____ muscle moves blood
cardiac
____ muscle allows digestion and urination
smooth
movement
muscular system allows movement of
- body parts via skeletal muscles
- substances via cardiac muscle and smooth muscle
contractility refers to movement at the cellular level
responsiveness
ability to sense and respond to stimuli; withdrawal reflex prevents injury; control of breathing rate, which must change in response to different activities
____ prevents injury
withdrawal reflex
digestion
break down of ingested foodstuffs, followed by absorbtion of simple molecules into blood
mechanical digestion
chewing
chemical digestion
breakdown of macromolecules
4 macromolecules
- proteins
- carbohydrates
- lipids
- nucleic acids
breakdown of molecules
catabolism
catabolism
breakdown of molecules
synthesis of molecules
anabolism
anabolism
synthesis of molecules
metabolism
all chemical reactions that occur in body cells; sum of catabolism and anabolism
excretion
removal of wastes from metabolism and digestion; urea from breakdown of proteins; carbon dioxide from metabolism; feces from digestion
breakdown of proteins results in
(excretion)
urea
urea is the result of
breakdown of proteins
metabolism results in
(excretion)
carbon dioxide
carbon dioxide is the result of
(excretion)
metabolism
digestion results in
(excretion)
feces
feces is the result of
digestion
growth
increase in size of a body part or of organism
reproduction
at the cellular level involves division of cells for growth and repair; at the organismal level is the production of offspring
humans are ____, so to function, individual cells must be kept alive
multicellular
how many organ systems are in the body?
11
forms the external body covering
integumentary system
protects deeper tissues from injury
integumentary system
synthesizes vitamin d
integumentary system
houses cutaneous receptors
integumentary system
houses sweat and oil glands
integumentary system
hair, skin, nails
integumentary system
integumentary system structure
hair, skin, nails
integumentary system function
forms the external body covering; protects deeper tissues from injury; synthesizes vitamin d; houses cutaneous receptors and sweat and oil glands
what happens when calcium levels get low?
makes bones weak and brittle
forms blood cells
skeletal system
protects and supports body organs
skeletal system
provides a framework the muscles use to cause movement
skeletal system
maintains blood calcium levels
skeletal system
skeletal system structure
bones, joints
bones, joints
skeletal system
skeletal system function
protects and supports body organs; provides a framework the muscles use to cause movement; forms blood cells; stores minerals
allows manipulation of the environment
muscular system
allows locomotion
muscular system
maintains posture
muscular system
produces heat
muscular system
skeletal muscles are part of
muscular system
muscular system structure
skeletal muscles
muscular system function
allows manipulation of the environment, locomotion, and facial expression; maintains posture; produces heat
allows facial expression
muscular system
fast acting homeostasis maintenance
nervous system
slow acting homeostasis maintenance
endocrine system
homeostasis maintained by
nervous system and endocrine system
responds to internal and external changes by activating appropriate muscles and glands
nervous system
brain, spinal cord, nerves
nervous system
fast acting control system of the body
nervous system
nervous system structure
brain, spinal cord, nerves
nervous system function
responds to internal and external changes by activating appropriate muscles and glands
glands that secrete hormones that regulate processes such as growth, reproduction, and nutrient use by body cells
endocrine system
thyroid gland, thymus, adrenal gland, pancreas, pineal gland, pituitary gland, ovary, testis
endocrine system
endocrine system structure
thyroid gland, thymus, adrenal gland, pancreas, pineal gland, pituitary gland, ovary, testis
endocrine system function
glands secrete hormones that regulate processes such as growth, reproduction, and nutrient use by body cells
cardiovascular system being a closed system causes ____
blood pressure
blood vessels, heart
cardiovascular system
transports blood
cardiovascular system
carries oxygen, carbon dioxide, nutrients, and wastes
cardiovascular system
cardiovascular system structure
blood vessels, heart
cardiovascular system function
blood vessels transport blood, which carries oxygen, carbon dioxide, nutrients, and wastes; the heart pumps blood
lymphocytes
white blood cells involved in immunity
picks up fluid leaked from blood vessels and returns it to blood
lymphatic system
disposes of debris in the lymphatic stream
lymphatic system
houses white blood cells involved in immunity
lymphatic system
red bone marrow, thymus, lymphatic vessels, thoracic duct, spleen, lymph nodes
lymphatic system
lymphatic system structure
red bone marrow, thymus, lymphatic vessels, thoracic duct, spleen, lymph nodes
lymphatic system function
picks up fluid leaked from blood vessels and returns it to blood; disposes of debris in the lymphatic system; houses white blood cells involved in immunity; the immune response mounts the attack against foreign substances within the body
balances pH
respiratory system and urinary system
keeps blood constantly supplied with oxygen
respiratory system
removes carbon dioxide
respiratory system
nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea, lung
respiratory system
respiratory system structure
nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea, lung
respiratory system function
keeps blood constantly supplied with oxygen and removes carbon dioxide; these exchanges occur through the walls of the air sacs of the lungs
breaks down food into absorbable units that enter the blood for distribution to body cells
digestive system
oral cavity, esophagus, large intestine, liver, stomach, small intestine, rectum, anus, gallbladder, pancreas
digestive system
digestive system structure
oral cavity, esophagus, large intestine, liver, stomach, small intestine, rectum, anus, gallbladder, pancreas
digestive system function
breaks down food into absorbable units that enter the blood for distribution to the body cells; indigestible foodstuffs are eliminated as feces
eliminates nitrogenous wastes from the body
urinary system
regulates water, electrolyte, and acid-base balance of the blood
urinary system
kidneys drain into ____
ureters
____ drain into ureters
kidneys
kidney, ureter, urinary bladder, urethra
urinary system
urinary system structure
kidney, ureter, urinary bladder, urethra
urinary system function
eliminates nitrogenous wastes from the body; regulates water, electrolyte, and acid-base balance of the blood
prostate, penis, testis, scrotum, ductus deferens
male reproductive system
male reproductive system structure
prostate, penis, testis, scrotum, ductus deferens
production of offspring
reproductive system
reproductive system function
production of offspring
mammary glands, uterus, vagina, ovary, uterine tube
female reproductive system
female reproductive system structure
mammary glands, uterus, vagina, ovary, uterine tube
somatic cells
body cells
body cells
somatic cells
gametes
sex cells
sex cells
gametes
rare disease that mimics aging
progeria
progeria
rare disease that mimics aging
progeria cause
defective progerin protein in the nuclear lamina that results in an unstable nucleus
progeria appears by age
2
progeria symptoms
slow growth, thinning hair, brittle bones, arthritis, severe cardiovascular disease, death usually by age 20
progeria treatment
drug that stimulates autophagy
genetic theory
cessation of mitosis and cell aging are programmed into genes
cessation of mitosis and cell aging are programmed into genes
genetic theory
telomeres
string of nucleotides that protect ends of chromosomes; shortens every time a cell divides
may act like an hourglass on how many times a cell can divide
telomere
strings of nucleotides that protect ends of chromosomes
telomeres
enzyme that lengthens telomeres
telomerase
found in germ cells of embryos but absent in adult cells, except for cancer cells
telomerase
makes cancer cells immortal
telomerase
telomerase
enzyme that lengthens telomeres; found in embryos; absent in adult cells except for cancer cells; makes cancer cells immortal
theory: a lifetime of chemical insults and free radicals have cumulative effects
wear and tear theory
wear and tear theory
a lifetime of chemical insults and free radicals have cumulative effects
theory: free radicals in mitochondria diminish energy production
mitochondrial theory of aging
mitochondrial theory of aging
free radicals in mitochondria diminish energy production
theory: autoimmune responses, as well as progressive weakening of immune response
immune system disorders
immune system disorders
autoimmune responses, as well as progressive weakening of immune response
why is cell division important during development
growth
why is cell division important in adults
replaces short-lived cells and repairs wounds
accelerated growth that increases cell numbers when needed
hyperplasia
hyperplasia
accelerated growth that increases cell numbers when needed
decrease in size that results from loss of stimulation or use
atrophy
atrophy
decrease in size that results from loss of stimulation or use
cell differentiation
development of specific and distinctive features in cells
development of specific and distinctive features in cells
cell differentiation
apoptosis
programmed cell death; causes certain cells to neatly self destruct; begins with mitochondrial membranes leaking chemicals that activate enzymes called capases; capases causes degradation of DNA and cytoskeleton, which leads to cell death; dead cell shrinks and is phagocytized by macrophages
programmed cell death
apoptosis
causes certain cells to neatly self -destruct
apoptosis
process begins with mitochondrial membranes leaking chemicals that activate enzymes called caspases
apoptosis
enzyme used in apoptosis
caspases
caspases
causes cell degradation of DNA and cytoskeleton, which leads to cell death
dead cell shrinks and is phagocytized by macrophages
apoptosis
in apoptosis, dead cell shrinks and is phagocytized by ____
macrophages
in apoptosis, dead cell shrinks and is ____ by macrophages
phagocytized
unneeded, misfolded, or damaged proteins can be marked for destruction by protein called
ubiquitin
ubiquitin
marks unneeded, misfolded, or damaged proteins for destruction
disassemble ubiquitin tagged proteins, recycling the amino acids and ubiquitin
proteasomes
proteasomes
disassemble ubiquitin tagged proteins, recycling the amino acids and ubiquitin
why is autophagy necessary
cells that have become obsolete or damaged need to be taken out of system
the process of disposing of nonfunctional organelles and sweeping up cytoplasmic bits, which can then be degraded by lysosomes
autophagy
autophagy
the process of disposing of nonfunctional organelles and sweeping up cytoplasmic bits by forming autophagosomes, which can then be degraded by lysosomes
DNA codes for other types of RNA like
miRNA; siRNA; riboswitches
small RNAs that can bind to and silence mRNAs made by certain exons
micro RNA (miRNA)
miRNA
micro RNA
micro RNA
small RNAs that can bind to and silence mRNAs made by certain exons
folded RNAs that act as switches that can turn protein synthesis on or off in response to certain environmental conditions
riboswitches
riboswitches
folded RNAs that act as switches that can turn protein synthesis on or off in response to certain environmental conditions
similar to miRNA, but can also be made to silence mRNA from pathogenic sources such as viruses
small interfering RNAs (siRNA)
siRNA
small interfering RNAs
small interfering RNAs
similar to miRNA, but can also be made to silence mRNA from pathogenic sources such as viruses
directs transfer of genetic information in DNA into amino acid sequence of protein
complimentary base pairing
complimentary base pairing
directs transfer of genetic information in DNA into amino acid sequence of protein
DNA triplets are coded to
mRNA codons
____ are coded to mRNA codons
DNA triplets
mRNA codons are base-paired with
tRNA anticodons
____ are base-paired with tRNA anticodons
mRNA codons
to ensure correct amino acid sequence, ____ are based paired with ____
mRNA codons; tRNA anticodons
mRNA codons are base-paired with tRNA anticodons to
ensure correct amino acid sequence
difference between anticodon sequence of tRNA and DNA sequence
uracil is substituted for thymine
a pH 5 solution is ____ more ____ than a pH 6 solution
10x; acidic
neutralization reaction forms
water and a salt
buffers
resist abrupt and large swings in pH; can release hydrogen ions if pH rises; can bind hydrogen ions if pH falls
carbohydrates include
sugar and starches
monosaccharides, disaccharides, polysaccharides
carbohydrates
carbohydrates contain elements
C, H, O
9 types of sugars
ribose; deoxyribose; glucose; sucrose, maltose, lactose, fructose, starch, glycogen
4 types of lipids
triglycerides, phospholipids, steroids, eicosanoids
