exam #1 Flashcards
1
Q
trait-descriptive adjectives
A
adjectives that can be used to describe characteristics of people
2
Q
authors of first textbooks on personality
A
Allport and Murray
3
Q
personality definition
A
-characteristic patterns of feeling, thinking and behaving
-set of organized and relatively enduring psychological traits and mechanisms within the individual that influence interactions with the intrapsychic, physical, and social environments
4
Q
psych traits def
A
characteristics that describe ways in which people are different from each other
5
Q
average tendencies def
A
typical behaviors that tend to arise from traits
6
Q
uses of personality
A
describes, explains, and predicts differences among individuals
7
Q
psych mechanisms
A
like traits, but involve information processing activity
-contain inputs, decision rules, and outputs
-ex: danger-> if courageous, face it; if not, run -> confront danger or run
8
Q
how many traits and psych mechanisms are activated at a time
A
only a few; usually only activated under particular circumstances
9
Q
within the individual
A
personality is something a person carries with them over time and from one situation to the next (personality is still influenced by the envt, but we still carry the same traits throughout time
-traits tell us how to behave certain ways and face challenges
10
Q
organized (traits)
A
mechanisms and traits are linked to one another; contain decision rules that govern which needs or motives are activated, depending on circumstances
11
Q
enduring (traits)
A
traits are somewhat consistent over situations
12
Q
states vs traits
A
states: only apply to the current situation, not a consistent trait
-some situations can still overpower expression of a trait
13
Q
influential forces
A
traits and mechanisms can have an effect on people’s lives; influences out actions, opinions, etc
14
Q
person-environment interaction 4 parts
A
-perceptions: how we interpret the environment
-selection: the manner in which we choose situations to enter
-evocations: reactions we produce in others, usually unintentionally
-manipulations: how we intentionally attempt to influence others
15
Q
adaptations in personality
A
accomplishing goals, coping, adjusting, and dealing with the challenges and problems we face through life
16
Q
the environment and personality
A
-physical: direct threats to survival (ex: natural disasters, food shortages)
-social: need to be a certain type of person to get friends, jobs, etc
-certain types of people will be more drawn to environments where they will have more opportunities
17
Q
intrapsychic
A
environment within the mind
-collection of memories, dreams, fantasies, etc
18
Q
three levels of personality analysis
A
we are all:
1. like all others (human nature: ex- needing love)
2. like some others (individual and group differences: ex- needing to belong)
3. like no others (individual uniqueness: ex- one person’s unique way of expressing love)
19
Q
individual differences vs differences among groups
A
ind: extravert vs intravert, etc
groups: men vs women, etc.
20
Q
nomothetic research
A
statistical comparisons of individuals or groups, requiring samples of participants to conduct research on
21
Q
idiographic research
A
focuses on one person, try to observe general principles in a single life over time
22
Q
6 domains of knowledge about human nature
A
- disposition
- biological
- intrapsychic
- cognitive-experiential
- social and cultural
- adjustment
23
Q
dispositional domain of knowledge
A
how individuals differ from each other, their concepts of self, and how these differences develop and are maintained
24
Q
biological domain of knowledge
A
genetics behind personality differences, psychophysiology, and evolution; examine the collection of biological systems, in a person and see how they influence behavior, thought, emotion
25
intrapsychic domain of knowledge
unconscious, mental mechanisms that operate outside of awareness (ex: sexual and aggressive motives, defense mechanisms, power motives)
26
cognitive-experiential domain of knowledge
thought processes and subjective experience (ex: conscious feelings and beliefs); approach personality through the personal projects/ tasks that the person is trying to accomplish
27
social and cultural domain of knowledge
what social and cultural factor effect us (ex: religion and gender)
28
adjustment domain
personality changes how we cope, adapt, adjust to everyday events (ex: physical and mental health issues)
29
personality psych
study of the whole person (human nature, individual differences, individual uniqueness), using an organization of traits that allows us to separate them
30
personality psych vs social psych
both: understand human nature and individual differences
dif: understand situation and envt
31
personality psych vs developmental psych
both about origins and change
32
personality psych vs clinical psych
"personality gone awry"
-describe how people are and use to predict behavior
-if personality is the person, and the person is suffering, personality is a functional part of the person
33
what can personality impact?
job, relationship, school, health
34
evolutionary theory
natural selection (Darwin)
35
psychoanalytic theory
Freud; most ambiguous attempt at a grand unifying theory of personality but actually lacks this
36
grand theories approach
all theories from Freud on; uses six domains of knowledge
37
contemporary approach
current ideas and problems; focus on ways that individuals and groups differ
38
perspectives of personality psych
biological, psychodynamic, learning, humanistic, cognitive
39
comprehensiveness of a theory
does the theory explain all of the facts and observations within the domain (a broad range of phenomena)?
40
heuristic value
does the theory provide a guide for new discoveries?
41
testability (useful/ generative)
does the theory provide precise predictions that can be tested empirically (with observations or experience)?
-allows other theories to be thrown out via falsification
42
criticisms of Freud's theory
no testability for the intrapsychic aspects
43
parsimony
does the theory contain few premises and assumptions?
44
compatibility and integration across domains and levels in a theory
is there other evidence that can disprove the theory? (ex: is is consistent with physiology knowledge?)
-rarely used to evaluate theories
45
coherent/ internally consistent
not self-contradictory
46
self report (S data) types
-interviews
-questionnaires (particularly in forms of statements) (Likert scale: 1-7 point scale of rating what term describes someone)
-individual reports
47
pros and cons of self report data
pros: people have access to information about themselves that others don't (ex: their own feelings, things they don't share with others), efficient, most people are familiar with it
cons: response biases, limits to types of questions that can be asked, not always honest
48
types of response bias
-central tendency (same answer across people to fit in)
-acquiescence (tendency to say yes)
-social desirability (answering one way to seem socially adept)
49
structured vs unstructured questions
unstructured: open-ended (ex: tell me about your favorite...)
structured: true or false statements
50
attempted improvements to self report data flaws
-"bogus pipeline": use fake polygraph to get people to respond truthfully
-anonymity (sometimes makes people more likely to admit things)
-measuring social desirability of answers
51
Funder's fourth law
there are only two kinds of data: terrible data (ambiguous, misleading, incomplete, etc) or no data
52
observer report data (o data)
information provided by an acquaintance or trained observer; info from impressions other have of us
53
pros and cons of observer reports
pros: other people might know you best and be more honest about you, can discuss your reputation, interactions with others, can use multiple observers
cons: biased, can be up to the person's interpretation and can say untrue things, observations limited by the context of the experiment
54
two strategies to select observers for observer reports
1- use professionals who don't know the participant
2- use people who do know them (may be able to observe natural behavior better and see multiple personalities when the person is with certain groups of people, but may be biased and overlook certain features)
55
attempted improvements of observer data flaws
-using multiple observers to compare results (inter-rater reliability)
56
naturalistic observation
observers witness events that occur in the normal course of the participant's life
-allows researchers to see more realistic contexts of the person's life, but can't manipulate every scenario
57
artificial observation
participants asked to perform a task and are observed
-can control certain scenarios, but isn't realistic to everyday life
58
test data (T data)
place in standardized testing situation to see response differences to others in an identical scenario
ex: projective tests (inkblots), implicit association test, mechanical devices, electronic and internet devices
59
pros of test data
-objectivity in some cases
-all context control and eliminates outside sources of information
-designed to elicit behavior difficult to observe in daily life
-allows specific hypotheses to be tested
60
cons of test data
-uncertain interpretations
-can guess what traits are being measured and act in or out of accordance
-may not actually be measuring what's being tested
-interpersonal: researcher may inadvertently influence the participants
61
mechanical recording devices example
actometer: assess personality differences in activity or energy level by measuring movement
-can be used in realistic settings, but don't directly measure personality
62
electronic and internet recording devices
ex: using sensors to measure heart rate, bp, etc. to see if physiological changes can be an indicator of personality (ex: lower startle response and heart rate/ anxiety response in psychopaths)
fMRI to observe brain changes
-can be difficult to fake responses, but not realistic to everyday life
63
projective techniques
given stimulus and asked what do you see, supposed to revel about personality by projecting their views or world, etc onto the stimulus, but may not be valid or reliable
64
life record/ life outcome data (L data)
info from events, activities, and outcomes in a person's life that's available to the public
-ex: educational records, criminal records, employment, social media
-can predicted from s-data and o-data of someone's early life
65
pros and cons of life records data
pros: relevant, important, objective, little bias, just facts
cons: potentially misleading, heterogeneously determined (may be extenuating circumstances that cause certain things to happen in someone's life
66
issues in personality assessment: links among various data sources
agreement across data sources doesn't always happen with traits that aren't as easy to see, and may doesn't always signify error in measurement (just differences in experience), but can help point out discrepancies and rule out bad theories
67
fallibility of personality measurement
-flaws in almost every measure of personality used
68
triangulation
if an effect is found, does the effect occur when it's measured with other forms of data reports?
69
why are physiological measures reliable but not valid?
measures the true level of the trait being measured, but may have nothing to do with personality
70
reliability
how consistent the results of the measure are
71
how to measure reliability?
-repeated measurement (test-retest reliability)
-internal consistency: if the items in a test all correlate with each other
-inter-rater reliability: different observers in a test agree with each other
72
non content responding
when a question is asked about behavior, some people respond on a different basis to what's being asked
73
types of response sets
-noncontent responding
-acquiescence
-extreme responding
-social desirability
74
extreme responding
tendency to give endpoint responses (ex: strongly agree)
75
social desirability
tendency to answer items in a way that comes across as socially attractive or likable
76
how to approach social desirability response sets
-assume responses are deceptive, measure it, and remove it from data
-word questionnaires differently
-forced choice questionnaire: asked which statement is more true to them
77
validity
-the extent that the test measures what it claims to measure
78
face validity
does the test appear to measure what it's supposed to (ex: do you perform manipulative acts when you're trying to measure manipulation?)
79
predictive/ criterion validity
does the test predict the criteria external to the test? (ex: if you're measuring consciousness, do people follow the rules, be on time, etc?)
80
convergent validity
does the test correlate with other measures that it should correlate with? (ex: does a self-report measure correspond with peer judgements of the measure?)
81
discriminant validity
does the test not correlate with measures it shouldn't correlate with? (ex: if measuring life satisfaction, can you discriminate between if you're measuring satisfaction vs social desirability?)
82
construct validity
does the test measure what it claims to measure? ie. does it converge with other measures of the same construct, relate to other variables that it should, and not relate to those it shouldn't
83
support of construct validity
nomological networks: relationships converge on the interpretation that the measurement is valid
84
generalizability validity
the degree that a measure retains its validity across various contexts (ex: does the results of a questionnaire stay similar if asked to different groups of people?)
85
what do experimental methods do
determine causality (find if one variable influences another variable)
86
key elements of good experimental designs
1- manipulation of one or more variables
2-random assignment
87
manipulation of variables benefits and process
-you know what order the results come in
-some people get variable, others don't
88
random assignment benefits and process
-eliminate confounds: any characteristic that could relate should be even across groups
-can have multiple experimental groups
-ensure all groups are the same
-randomly assign some people control and others experimental
89
counterbalancing
-get equivalence by giving one group control one time, and experimental the next time
-used in a within-participant design
90
standard deviation
measure of variability within each condition
91
correlational studies
is there a relationship between two variables?
92
correlation coefficient
-1.0 -> 1.0
-exactly 1 = same thing
-need to know both the magnitude and direction of the relationship
93
directionality problem
-correlational studies
-reverse causality: y causes x, not x causes y
94
third variable problem
-also called confounds
-an unknown variable is causing correlation
95
case study method
-examine the life of one person to gain insight on the general population, or insight on rare phenomena
96
when to use and not use experimental design?
to establish causal relationships between variables, not when trying to identify the relationships as they occur in real life
97
when to use and not to use correlational studies
when trying to see if relationship exists in something that's been happening for years and can't be ethically manipulated, or for variables that occur in everyday life; not when determining causality
98
when to and not to use case study designs?
when needing to generate hypotheses to be used for correlational or experimental methods, or identity patterns in individual functioning; not to establish causality or identify pattens across individuals in nature
99
theory
a system of logical principles that attempts to explain the relationships among natural, observable phenomena
100
pre-scientific measures of personality measurement
-phrenology: brain differences correspond to lumps in the skull
-physiognomy: different body types based on personality
101
some easy ways to determine personality?
behavior, socially, psych tests, clothing, appearance
102
nomological network
genes cause constructs, which then cause traits
-certain traits can be shared between constructs, but usually are unique
103
psychological measures
-standard instruments/ methods used to measure personality
-usually involve multiple items together
-questionnaires, trials in a reaction time test, etc
104
factor analysis
-uses correlational logic
-if multiple variables correlate highly, they are measuring the same thing
-if they don't, they aren't
105
steps to develop a self-report measure
-item generation
-data collection
-factor analysis/ data reduction to finalize scale and find what the best individual items are
-validity tests
106
rules for interpreting a factor on factor analysis (heuristics)
- identify original tests items with high loadings
-ask, what are the items trying to get at -> primary name of the factor
-locate items on the negative side of the factor
-any factors without high loadings = garbage factor
107
what do third variables/ confounds create?
spurious (bogus) x-y correlations
108
mediators
part of the x-y correlation: a kind of third variable that can cause a correlation in a part of the sequence
109
negatives of experimental study
-people might know they're in the study and change their behavior
-can't always simulate certain variables (ex: years of social media use)
110
longitudinal studies
statistically address correlational shortcomings, especially reverse causality, but are still fundamentally correlational
-look at variables at time 1, then follow up at time 2
-subtract one variable at time 2 from other variable at time 2
-examine individuals at both points and try to prevent the data from being influenced from outside factors
111
traits
-characteristics/ elements of a person that show a characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and behaving
-descriptive summaries of attributes of people
112
properties of traits
-stable (consistent over time) processes that cause behavior
-saying that someone "is" a trait implies that they are that trait across situations, and allows you to assume that they like doing things related to that trait, not that these things just happen to them
-dimensional, not typological/ categorical (saying someone is a certain trait means that they are more like that traits than others, and on average across time and situations)
113
socioemotional functioning
thoughts, feelings, behaviors reflected by traits
114
behavioral systems
calibrated activity is reflected by traits, and the traits should be able to be traced through biology and adaptations
-observable behavior is embedded in trait hierarchy
115
hierarchy of traits
encompasses multiple subtracts to define the overarching trait
-top: large traits (ex: inquisitiveness)
-middle top: small traits (ex: curious, interested)
-middle bottom: habits (ex: asking more questions)
-bottom: individual situations/ behavioral and mental acts
116
Walter Mishel
-bottom up hypothesis: traits are "convenient fictions" given after the fact to label situationally-
determined behavior
-situationalism: if behavior changes from situation to situation, then it's because of situational differences, not underlying personality differences
117
other factors that may cause someone to have a trait
-types of people they hang out with
-education
-career
118
person-situation debate
is someone's behavior influenced more by themselves (their traits) or the situation?
ex: if the situation is frustrating, and if the person has a hot temper, then aggression will result
119
interactionism
people may be more like their trait in certain situations, but not others
120
consistency and traits
it may be a personality trait itself
121
Seymour Epstein
principle of aggregation (averaging): looking across multiple situations should show the highest correlation than just looking at a couple (if we do this, it's more reliable than any 1 data point)
122
attraction/ selection of traits
we are attracted to situations where our trait will flourish
123
evocation of traits
certain trait may cause specific responses from the environment
(ex: those who are mean make others hostile)
124
manipulation of traits
we intentionally change situations to make us more comfortable
125
overview of traits (features of traits)
hierarchically organized dimensions of thought, feeling, and behavior that exist within the person and interact with situations, generating characteristic patterns of being that we call personality
126
lexical hypothesis
all traits to describe people can be found in language
-over time, adjectives are invented to talk about differences in people as these changes are noticed
-trait terms are extremely important to communicate with others
127
lexical/ statistical approach to measure trait importance
-dominant approach
-bottom up
-collect data and look for patterns in it
128
theoretical approach
-top down
-start with theory and derive from that
-must start with what variables you may believe are important, determined by if the factors have theory behind them
129
Cattell
-delitescent, vulnific, or earthbred
130
Eysenck
-N: neuroticism-emotional stability
-E: extraversion-introversion
-P: psychoticism- delusions, cruelty, antisociality
-hierarchy: super trait at top, narrower traits in middle, habitual acts at bottom
-biological underpinnings of heritability and identifiable physiological substrate (properties in brain and CNS that are presumed to cause traits)
131
five factor model
big 5; OCEAN
132
neuroticism
-emotional stability
relaxed, stable, secure <-> nervous, moody, insecure
133
low neuroticism does not mean
positive emotion
134
neuroticism facets
-self-reproach (low self esteem): inferiority, worthless, hopeless
-anxiety
-depression: discouraged, lonely, sad
-prone to disruption in a negative way
135
extraversion
-sociability
reserved, shy, sober, quiet <-> sociable, active, talkative
136
extraversion facets
-sociability
-positive affect
-activity
137
openness
-creativity
conventional, unartistic <-> curious, creative, imaginative
138
openness facets
-aesthetic interests
-intellectual interests
-unconventionality
139
agreeableness
-kindness
cynical, irritable, rude, uncooperative <-> warm, kind, sincere
140
agreeableness facets
-non-antagonistic: non-manipulating, non-cynical/ skeptical
-prosocial: attentive, caring, courageous
141
conscientiousness
-reliability
unreliable, lazy, careless, sloppy <-> organized, reliable, disciplined, ambitious
142
conscientiousness facets
-orderliness: neat, clean, systematic
-goal-striving: hard-working, ambitious
-dependability
143
act frequency research program
-act nomination: describe behavior of someone with a believed trait
-prototypicality judgment: rate how typical or dominant the behaviors are
-recording act performance: find info on the person's daily life and see if behaviors can be predicted
144
synonym frequency
if an attribute has many words to describe it, it is a more important dimension of individual difference
145
cross-cultural universality
if a trait is important in all cultures that people have made terms to describe the trait across their cultures, then the trait must be universally important
146
interpersonal traits
what people do to and with each other
147
circumplex model of personality
-looks like a math graph
-show dimensions of traits on both axes, and plot people in between
148
adjacency
how close the traits are to each other in the circumplex
149
bipolarity circumplex
bipolar traits: located at opposite sides of the circle and are negatively correlated with each other
150
orthogonality circumplex
traits that are perpendicular to each other on the model are entirely unrelated to each other
151
common aspects of people with high extraversion
-take leadership positions
-active in social environment
-more involved in and enjoy work
-risky behaviors (ex: fast driving)
-save less money
152
common aspects of people with high agreeableness
-negotiate to resolve conflicts
-withdraws from social conflict
-enjoy cooperative family life
-better relationships
153
common aspects of people with high conscientiousness
-save money
-delay gratification
-higher grades
-more success in work
-stick to plans and what others tell them to do
-better health: stay on top of appointments, etc
154
common aspects of people with low emotional stability (neuroticism)
-more frequent thoughts of suicide
-poorer physical health
-more likely to choke under pressure
-less likely to complete tasks on time
-work best in unusually busy situations
-risk factor for mental health DOs
155
common aspects of those with high openness
-remember dreams more
-experiment with new foods
-easily overstimulated
156
HEXACO model
-humility-honesty
-emotionality
-(X) extraversion
-agreeableness
-conscientiousness
-openness
157
criticisms of big 5
-some traits may be highly correlated, but it isn't enough to simply describe people in more broad terms (ex: height and weight -> size) -rebuttal: facets
-atheoretical, descriptions don't explain
158
Digman (the biggest 2)
-communion and A,C, (low) N
-agency and E, O
159
attachment style
cannot be simply explained by the big 5
160
theory and factor analysis
theory can be as good as FA at identifying potentially important traits
-FA can reveal survey-takers' theories of personality, not just what's "real"
-can capture what people tend to notice about others
161
early childhood and self esteem correlation?
you have more experiences outside of home envt as you get older and leave the house, so values may go up or down in no relation to parenting, etc
162
how do genes influence the environment?
having a certain trait may change the ways others treat you
(ex: if you are depressed, others might treat you with less warmth, which causes you to be more depressed and elicits a cycle)
163
how does the environment influence genes?
if you have a trait that runs in the family (ex: depression), it can be triggered by the environment
164
how to tell what is a mediator
anything in a causal chain
165
temperament
earliest observable individual differences between people
166
temperament facts
-early-emerging
-little to no disposition or tendency
-biologically based and inherited
-stable
167
dimensions of temperament
-negative emotionality (emotional reactivity)
-surgency/ extraversion
-activity level (involvement in environment, ex: wanting to explore)
-impulsivity, self-control
168
temperament precursors to the big 5
-orienting sensitivity -> openness
-self-control -> conscientiousness
-extraversion -> extraversion, agreeableness
-negative emotionality -> neuroticism
169
difference between temperament and personality
T: studied by developmental psychologists
P: studied by personality psychologist
170
birth order and temperament
no external correlation
-parenting can change from kid to kid based on prior experiences
171
the nurture assumption
-Judith Rich Harris
-showed that differences between genes vs parenting show little meaning in a person developing a certain way
-if you take identical twins, separate at birth, and raise them, they still end up pretty similar
172
Cf Baumrind's parenting styles
traits more likely to develop from genes and environment as a whole than just parenting styles
-doesn't mean that parenting doesn't matter, just that the correlation is small
173
absolute (mean-level) personality change
change relative to oneself
174
differential (rank order) personality change
relative position compared to others
-people tend to move in the same direction at the same time, so this tends to stay the same throughout life
175
maturity/ personality change as you age
personality gets better (more socially desirable) as you age)
176
rank order stability
-substantial stability, but decreases with longer time spans
-the older you get, the less likely your personality is to change
-stability is higher in older age and more stable environments
177
Delia case example
may be low E, mood swings, low A with women, high A with men, but personality changes depending on environment as a survival tactic
178
strong situation
situations where nearly all people react in similar ways (ex: death of loved one)
179
issues with trait questionnaires and how they are detected
-carelessness: people may not fill it out carefully or truthfully -> infrequency scale to flag results
-faking -> claim as false positive or negative
180
Barnum statements
generalities (statements that could apply to anyone) that most people may agree with, but they don't actually show anything about the person
-ex: MBTI test
181
major uses of personality assessment
-personnel selection
-integrity testing (overt (direct) and covert (indirect) questions about behavior)
-concerns over negligent hiring (failure to report that employee may be a danger in the workplace)
182
issues with MBTI
-no test-retest reliability
-assumes large between category differences, and no within-category differences
183
important factors for personality tests used in the workplace
-must not discriminate unfairly against protected groups
-should relate to important real life variables (ex: job performance)
184
personality coherence
maintaining rank order in relation to others but changing manifestations of the trait (ex: different ways of showing dominance at age 8 vs age 20)
185
defining qualities of personality change
-changes are internal to the person, not just changes in the surroundings
-changes are relatively enduring over time, not temporary
186
trait consistency
increases in a linear fashion to middle age, where it reaches its peaks after ~50 years
187
neuroticism changes over time
tends to decrease over time
188
self esteem changes over time
decreases more in females
189
autonomy, leadership motivation, achievement, dominance over time
all increase over time
190
sensation seeking over time
peaks around late adolescence, falls as people get older
191
agreeableness and conscientiousness changes over time
increase, suggests increased maturity
192
romantic partners and personality
selecting a partner more similar to yourself may make traits more stable, and marriage longer and more stable
