Exam 1 Flashcards
prokaryote
single-celled organism that lacks a nucleus and has no membrane around genes
eukaryote
organism that contains a nucleus and organelles; highly evolved; genes wrapped in membrane
colony
big pile of cells visible to the naked eye that come from a single cell and are all identical
strain
identical descendants that come from a colony
species
not identical strains that have many characteristics that make them common; has a name
E. Coli full name
Escherichia Coli
What is the genus & species in E. coli
E. = genus
Coli = species
genus
many species that have a name
type strains
used for reference; compares known with unknown
culture collections
ATCC: American Type Culture Collections
Bergey’s Manual
Encyclopedia of organisms
Ecology
Where a microorganism is found
Shape
What shape a microorganism is formed in
Biochemistry
What a microorganism likes to eat
Antibody Binding
Antibodies bind to a conformational shape on the surface of antigens; usually done in a hospital lab
Size of Prokaryote
Small
Size of Eukaryote
Larger; An amoeba is a whale to a bacteria (prokaryote)
Metabolic Rate
How quickly fuels (such as sugars) are broken down to keep the organism running.
T OR F: Metabolic Rate Increases as surface volume increases?
True
Surface/Volume Ratio
Limits cell size because the bigger the cell gets, the less surface area it has for its size.
How often do E. Coli divide?
E. Coli divide every 20 minutes
How often do cells in the intestinal tract divide?
Cells in the intestinal tract divide once every 24 hours
Cocci
Prokaryotic; Spherical; O
Diplococci
Prokaryotic; 2 spheres together: OO
What is the most famous diplococci?
Streptococcus Pneumoniae
Streptococci
Prokaryotic; Chains of spheres: OOOOOOO
What is the cause of strep throat?
Streptococcus Pyogenes
Tetrads
Prokaryotic; Group of four: 88
What tetrad likes groups of four and does not cause sickness?
Gaffkya Tetragena
Clusters
Most famous arrangement; Genetic building blocks of bacteria.
What bacteria is a form of MRSA, kills 1/4 people in the US, & has no cure?
Staphylococcus Aureus
Bacilli
Prokaryotic; Rod Shaped
Bacillus Anthracis
Rod shaped; Known as Anthrax; Naturally occurs
Spirochetes
Prokaryotic; Spiral Shaped
What is the most famous spirochete and what is the common name?
Treponema Pallidum; Known as syphilis.
What prokaryotic shape of bacteria is unusual?
Prokaryotic; Square bacteria
T OR F: Square Bacteria cause disease.
False
Where do square bacteria grow?
They grow in H2O w/ high salt content
Coccobacillus
Prokaryotic; In between a rod (bacillus) and a sphere (cocci) : short rod
What is the most famous coccobacillus?
Brucella
Who studies brucella?
The Department of Agriculture
Pleomorphism
Prokaryotic; All different shapes
Examples of Pleomorphism
Amoebas
What is a mycoplasm
A pleomorphism; bacteria that can feel like a cold
Hypha
Eukaryotic; thread-like; cars in a train
How can we see Hyphae?
To see 1: Microscope. To see many: Visible to the naked eye.
Mycelia
Eukaryotic; Pile of filaments
T OR F: Fungi can be filaments or yeast.
True
What shape are yeasts?
Eukaryotic; Egg-Shaped
Saccharomyces
Eukaryotic; Make bread & wine
T OR F: Saccharomyces cause disease.
False
Dimorphism
able to produce hyphae or yeast
T OR F: Protozoa are all different shapes
True
Protozoa
Eukaryotic; One-celled organisms
Algae
Eukaryotic; One-celled organisms
What are multiple algae called?
Filaments
What is the only algae infection?
Protothecosis
Peptidoglycan
Prokaryotic cell wall component; made of polymer
T OR F: Phospholipids are a cell wall component of both Eukaryotic and Prokaryotic cells.
True
Porosity
Ability to allow things in
Gram positive Cell Wall
Cytoplasmic Membrane –> Wall –> THICK peptidoglycan
Gram negative Cell Wall
Cytoplasmic Membrane –> THIN peptidoglycan –> lipid polysaccharide
Pilus
spike of protein; attached to prokaryotic cell wall
Fimbriae
Help bacteria attach; smaller and more common
Sex Pili
In prokaryotes; 1 or 2; transfer DNA from 1 cell to another
Fungal Wall
Eukaryotic cell wall component; made of chitin
T OR F: Chitin is a eukaryotic cell wall component made up off n-acetlylglucosaminex repeated over and over again.
True
Algal Wall
Eukaryotic cell wall component; made of cellulose
Pectin
Eukaryotic cell component; A soluble fiber; able to buy in stores; makes jellies
Silicon Dioxide (SiO2)
Eukaryotic cell component; Shell made of glass
T OR F: Unit membranes are only in prokaryotes
False; Unit membrane is a structure of both prokaryotes and eukaryotes
Unit Membrane
2 layers of membrane; like a sandwich
Mesosome
Prokaryotic; Involved with cell wall synthesis and DNA
T OR F: Thylakoids and Chlorosomes are bacteria that can do photosynthesis
True
Sterol
Eukaryotic; Steroid; group of chemicals
Pellicle
Layer of protozoa that gives them their shape
T OR F: Calcium Carbonate makes up the shell of some protozoa
True
Endoplasmic Reticulum
membrane within a eukaryotic cell; holds ribosomes and transports
T OR F: ER is famous for synthesis
True
Miscellaneous contents in prokaryotes
Enzymes, chemicals compounds, ribosomes
Svedburg Unit
A measure of a particle’s size indirectly based on its sedimentation rate under acceleration (70s)
Nucleoid
Prokaryotic; Area of the cell where we find DNA; circle in nucleus
Plasmids
Prokaryotic; small circles of DNA
Inclusion Bodies
Prokaryotic; non-living chemical particles of aggregated protein
Granules/Crystals
Prokaryotic; used for storage
Miscellaneous content in Eukaryotes
Chemical compounds, enzymes, ribosomes (may be stuck to ER)
Organelles
Eukaryotic; Structures in a cell; Nucleus; visible under regular microscope
Nucleus
Eukaryotic; able to see under microscope
Histones
protein in nucleus
Nucleolus
darker spot in nucleus; synthesis of RNA
Plasmids
Eukaryotic; DNA molecule
Mitochondria and Chloroplasts
Energy producers
Golgi bodies
Membrane stacks; pancake like
Cytoplasmic streaming
Eukaryotic; Ability to create rivers of fluid that allow material to move quickly through the cell
Ultracentrifuge
Separates particles and molecules based on their density
Phototrophs
make chemical compounds using energy from light
Autotrophs
Like naturally occurring chemicals that contain energy ex. Sulfur
Heterotrophs
Able to break down big molecules like sugar
Reproduction
helps organisms suceed
Binary Fission
asexual; organism gets big then splits
Asexual Reproduction
offspring produced by 1 single parents
Haploid
only 1 copy of genetic material
Sporulation
method of survival; bacterium turn into spores under extreme conditions
Endospore
Spore inside mother cell
Bacillus and Clostridium
producers of spores
T OR F: Clostridium is famous in healthcare
True
Budding
Yeast pops off smaller babies
Symbioses
Interactions between cells
Endosymbiotic Relationships
Organism grows in another
Ectosymbiotic Relationship
organism attaches to another
Mutualism
both members benefit
Commensalism
only 1 member benefits
Parasitic
1 individual is harmed
Motility
ways to get around
Chemotaxis
movement to or away from a chemical; response
Swarming
billions of bacteria migrate together; dangerous
Proteus
causes UTI; swarmer; genus of gram-negative bacteria
Pseudomonas
swarmer
Flagella
protein filament that moves bacteria around
Peritrichous
Cell covered in flagella
Monotrichous
cell has 1 flagella
Lophotrichous
1 flagella at 1 end
Amphitrichous
1 flagella at either end
Spirochetes/Axial Filaments
Turn like a screw
Gliding bacteria
move like a snail
Cyanobacteria
Photosynthetic bacteria; blue green algae
Flagella
1 in Eukaryotes
Cilia
short flagella
Cytoplasmic streaming
fluid in a cell
T OR F: Amoebas use cytoplasmic streaming to move
True
Endoplasm
inside
Ectoplasm
Outside
Pseudopodia
Foot-like
Compound
multiple lenses
brightfield
circle of bright light
objective lense
piece closest to the specimen (10x, 40x, 100x)
Ocular Lense
Lens you look through (eyepiece)
Real Image
picture the microscope sees
Virtual Image
Picture Imagined by your brain
Magnification
power
Resolving Power
shortest distance 2 objects can be seen
Numerical Aperture
Mathematical function; The higher numerical aperture the better resolving power
Wavelength
determines visibility
T OR F: Blue and Violet make the worst picture
False; actually the opposite
Refractive Index
Light refracting off lense in all directions
Condenser and Diaphragm
allows a specific amount of light in
Dyes
chemical that gives cells color
Chromophore group
Gives dye its color
Auxochrome group
makes dye stick to cell
T OR F: Cells are covered w carboxyl group
True
Basic Dyes
Crystal Violet. Safranin. Malachite green, Methylene Blue
Simple Staining
1 dye
Complex Staining
sees characteristics of cells
Differential staining
more than 1 dye used to see differences in cells
Acid-Fast stain
identifies acid fast (or non-acid fast) organisms
Mycobacterium
Acid Fast; tuberculosis
Acid-Fast Staining
Primary Stain: carbol-fuschin (red)
Decolorizer: acid alcohol
Counterstain (secondary stain): methylene blue
Gram Stain
Determines gram + and gram - stains
Gram Stain process
Primary stain: Crystal violet
Mordant: Iodine
Decolorizer: Alcohol
Counterstain (secondary stain): Safranin
Darkfield Microscopy
light bounces off the object to the eye
Darkfield condensor
Produces circle of light
Negative staining
stains behind cells; not actual cells
Phase Contrast Microscopy
Special Condensors and Objectives: increase contrast between cell parts
LightRays: direct-pass through indirect-retarded/affected by light
Bright Phase Microscopy
Brighter Image
Dark Phase microscopy
Darker image
T OR F: Fluorescent Microscopy is important w disease and diagnoses
True
Fluorescent Microscopy
Fluorochrome: increased wavelength when light beam bounces off
Ex) auramine o, acridine orange, fluorescein, rhodamine, ethidium bromide
Fluorescent Microscope
Darkfield microscope that makes UV light
Mercury Lamp: UV, Violet, Bluelight
Immunofluorescence: Antibodies bind to germ
Dyes: fluorescein, isothiocyanate (green), rhodamine (yellow.
Electron Microscope
Most powerful
Vacuum: specimen is dead and dried
Electron beam: light bulb; through machine
Electromagnetic Coils: brings a specific focus
Fluorescent Screen: helps someone see the picture
EM Types
Transmission EM (2D) & Scanning EM (3D)
Preparation types for EM
Chemicals Used: Fixing- osmium tetroxide or glutaraldehyde Staining-uranyl acetate, lead citrate, or lead hydroxide Coating-platinum
Whole Mount for EM
for small specimen
Copper Grid for EM
Holds sample; diameter of pencil eraser; background coated (negative stain)
Metal Stains for EM
Coats Specimen (positive stain)
Shadow casting for EM
Metal atoms sprayed at an angle on specimen
Ultrathin Sectioning for EM
Thin Section of Specimen
Ultramicrotome for EM
Small thin section of specimen
Freeze Fracturing for EM
Sample is frozen, cracked, sprayed w metal then a mold is made
Sterilization
removal of all life forms
disinfection
Removal of all vegetative life (Cells)
disinfectant
agent; method to killing germs; cant kill spores
Antiseptic
Disinfectants gentle enough to use on body
Aseptic technique
Method that keeps things free from being infected
Moist Heat
Method that uses steam/baking and causes coagulation of molecules
Autoclaving
Method that steams under pressure and is a type of sterilization; 120 degrees centigrade with 15lb of pressure per square inch; like a pressure cooker
Pasteurization
Method Kills vegetative pathogens at 60 degree centigrade for 10 minutes; used for liquids like milk where most germs die but not all
Dry Heat
Method that dehydrates cells and kills them 180 degrees centigrade for 2 hours; sterilizes scalpels
Extreme Cold
Method for preservation; kills some cells and stops some cells from growing
Lyophilization or Freeze Drying
modern method of preservation of degradable material; quick freeze then vacuumed; turns liquid to gas & dehydrates cells
Filtration
Methods of removing certain cells
Nitrocellulose Filters
Most common; doest not allow germ cells through
Radiation
causes mutations
Ultraviolet Light
Causes skin cancer; good for non porous surfaces; found in nature
Ionizing Radiation
penetrates germs and makes disposable medical supplies sterile
Phenols
Are antiseptic
Lysol
main ingredient in antiseptics; destroys proteins and enzymes; harsh on the body
Camphophenique
mineral oil w phenol good for bug bites
Alcohols
Isopropanol (common rubbing) and ethanol (drinking)
Halogens
Inactive sulfhydro groups
Iodine and Chlorine
Damage sulfhydro groups (chlorine is an important weapon)
Peroxide
H2O2 Hydrogen Peroxide used on cuts
Surface Active Agents
Increase miscibility of molecules
Miscibility
Molecules ability to mix
Soaps
Enable oil and water to mix; Sodium or Potassium salts of fatty acids
Detergents
synthetic; hydrophobic & hydrophilic ends
Alkylating Agents
Formaldehyde, Formalin (antimicrobial agent), and glutaraldehyde (alkyl group that gets added to amino acids to kill cells)
Ethylene Oxide
Sterilizes disposable products
Heavy Metals
Hg, Ag, Pb, Cd, and Zn (may all be toxic)
Chemotherapy
Chemicals to kill germs not patient
Antibiotics
made by microorganisms to kill/inhibit
Bacillus and Streptomyces
bacteria
Penicillium and Cephalosporium
Fungi
Antibiotic Characteristic: Broad Spectrum
works against gram + and - bacteria
Antibiotic Characteristic: Narrow Spectrum
very powerful but only against few species
Antibiotic Characteristic: Bactericidal
Kill bacteria
Antibiotic Characteristic: Bacteriostatic
Slow/Stop growth of germ; don’t kill streptomysin
Indirect Toxicity
Allergy
Direct Toxicity
Destruction of Sensitive Tissue
Topic Use
on the skin
Inhibitors of Cell Wall Synthesis
not toxic to humans
Inhibitors of Cell Wall Synthesis: Peptidoglycan
Penicillin and Cephalosporin (treats ranges of infections)
Inhibitors of Cell Membrane Function
Amphotericin B: binds to sterol and fungal membrane; treats fungal infections
Polymyxins: acts a cationic detergent against bacteria
Inhibitors of Protein Synthesis: Streptomycin
aminoglycoside antibiotic; treats TB
Inhibitors of Protein Synthesis: Chloramphenicol
Acts as an antibiotic
Inhibitors of Protein Synthesis: Tetracycline
Goes into bone; turns bone yellow; popular in dentistry
Inhibitors of Nucleic Acid Synthesis: Rifampicin
Interferes w/ RNA polymerase; bacteria
Inhibitors of Nucleic Acid Synthesis: Griseofulvin
For fungi; prescribed for really bad infections
Inhibitors of Nucleic Acid Synthesis: 5-iodo-2-dyoxyuridine (azidothymidine: AZT)
1st discovered chemical to inhibit AIDS
Inhibitors of Nucleic Acid Synthesis: Acyclovir
Herpes; slows polymerase and decreases severity
Inhibitors of Nucleic Acid Synthesis: Interferon
Part of the immune system; tells uninfected cells to protect themselves
Antimetabolites: Sulfanimide
Chemical used like an antibiotic; interferes w/ synthesis of Folic acid
T OR F: Cells need folic acid to live
True
Antibiotics in Animal Feed
Biggest use of antibiotics; helps animals grow bigger faster and healthier
Impermeability
Aware of the grown resistance
Mutations
Growing faster; change in DNA sequence of organism
Plasmids
Natural “antibiotic” resistance
Minimum Inhibitory Concentration (Tube Dilution Antibody Disc Test)
Series of tubes w different concentration of products to see which tubes show growth
Disc Diffusion
Isolating germs on petri dish, swab petri dish w antibiotics, look for zone w no growth
Growth in prokaryotes
1 cell, eats, gets big, splits in half
Single Cell studies
watching 1 cell until it splits
Synchronized Cultures
watching big group of cells
Environmental manipulations: temperature
raising and lowering temp
Environmental manipulations: Photosynthesis
adding and removing light to slow or speed photosynthesis
Environmental manipulations: germination
Making spores and then putting them in a new media
Environmental manipulations: Starvation
lack of food then adding food and so on
Membrane Filter
organisms grow and are rinsed on membrane filter new cells stay old cells go
Density Configuration
Old and young cells are separated by density
Cell Envelope and Division in Cocci:
Wall bands: belly button Wall notch: indentation Septum: wall that divides two cells
Cell envelope and division in Rod shaped bacteria
Multiple Sites: Septum: Wall that divides 2 cells Minicells: Don’t have genes
Growth in Eukaryotes
G1: prep S: DNA translation G2: migration of nucleus M: Mitosis
Media
food for microorganisms
Broth
Liquid; sometimes edible
Agar
Semisolid food for microorganisms derived from kelp
Population Growth
group of cells
batch culture
large number of bacteria; closed system
Lag phase
Time to adjust to new environment
Logarithmic Or Exponential Phase
Growth that happens quickly
Stationary Phase
Tube may be polluted; growth slows
Death and Decline phase
Cells start dying off
Geometric or Exponential Growth
starts with 1 bacteria and continues doubling 1–>2–>4–>8 etc.
Doubling time or generation time
Time needed to double
Continuous Culture
open system ex) creek
Chemostat
makes continuous culture
Turbidostat
Computer controlled to determine what the specimen needs to stay alive
Hyperbolic Curve
Not enough food; cell that lack food decrease in size
Structural Changes w starvation
Limit to growth even w infinite food
Diauxic curve
giving new food once the other stops showing grother
Shift Up experiment
Sudden enrichment of food
Shift down experiment
sudden disenrichment of food
Biomass
measured growth and weight
Bioessay
Detects substance and determines toxicity of chemicals by looking at growth of living material
Petroff-Hausser counter
3 inch long slide with graph paper, adding a drop of liquid and counting bacteria on one square and input into equation
Colony Count
counts live cells
Spread plate technique
Spreading sample on plate of agar
Pour tube technique
Sample put into melted agar and grows
Coulter Counter
Hospital method to measure electrical resistance; determines cell size and number
Photometer or Spectrophotmeter
Group of machines that use light
Colorimeter
Tube goes in machine with samples and light reaches the sample. What ever light gets through hits the photodetector and gives a number that determines the clarity of specimen
Optical Density
Cloudiness of a specimen
Cell Mass
how heavy cells are
chemical methods
measures chemical found in ATP which can measure live cells
Metabolic Method
measures how much of a natural chemical is used
BODtrak
measures H2O in sample
Factors Affecting Growth: Temperature
Organisms prefer certain temperatures
Psychrophiles
Organisms that prefer cold temps (frozen to 20 degrees centigrade)
Thermophiles
Organisms that prefer heat (40-100 degrees centigrade)
Mesophiles
Organisms that grow in midrange temperature (25-40 degrees centigrade)
Osmotic Pressure
Concentration of Molecules
Halophiles
organisms that love salt
Hydrostatic Pressure
pressure on a column of water at the top and bottom of the column
Barbiology
study of hydrostatic pressure
Barotolerant
organisms that grow under low pressure but can tolerate higher pressures
Barophilic
Organisms that grow under high pressure
Facultative Barophiles
Organisms that grow under low and high pressures
Alkalophiles
organisms that love high pH environments
Neutrophiles
organisms that love pH environments between 4 and 9
Acidophiles
organisms that love low pH environments
OxidationReduction (Eh)
important for life; measurable by machine
Sulfhydryl Groups
chemicals that consist of sulfur and hydrogen
Low pH
associated w low Eh
Anaerobic Environment
lacks O2; low Eh and pH
Plas-Labs
anaerobic chambers
