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PNB 2774 > Exam 1 > Flashcards

Exam 1 Flashcards

1
Q

M1|L1

What does the word anatomy mean?

2

A

Greek: “to cut apart”

Biological structure

Latin: “mode of building”

Anglo-Saxon English: “how does it LOOK?”

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2
Q

M1|L1

What does the word physiology mean?

2

A

Greek: “study of nature”

Cell/tissue/organ function

Latin: “a performance”

Anglo-Saxon English: “what does it DO?”

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3
Q

M1|L1

What does the term anatomy & physiology mean?

2

A

The study of biological structure and function

must know & identify the parts of a system before trying to understand how it works

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4
Q

M1|L1

What does anatomy tell us?

2

A

It is the “know” component of the names, locations, classifications, morphologies, and orientations of STRUCTURES

Memorization

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5
Q

M1|L1

What does physiology tell us?

2

A

It is the “understand/apply/analyze” component of principles, themes, processes, underlying ideas, and concepts regarding FUNCTIONS

Mechanisms

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6
Q

M1|L1

What is the KEY to anatomy and physiology?

2

A

The KEY is to integrate the KNOWledge and the UNDERSTANDing
Memorization is extremely important, but concepts are essential

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7
Q

M1|L1

Explain how anatomy is the structure

example from lecture

2

A

The walls of blood capillaries are composed of a thin epithelium known as simple squamos

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8
Q

M1|L1

Explain how physiology is the function

example from lecture

2

A

The structure of the capillary walls promotes nutrient and waste exchange

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9
Q

M1|L1

What is some of the history behind anatomy?

2

A

~1500 gross anatomy is very old and superficial

~1890-1910 stains/dyes allowed for tissues and cells to be visualized, light microscope has been around awhile (advances improved magnification)

~1950-1960 electron microscope allowed for subcellular details to be visible

Advances were driven by technology

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10
Q

M1|L1

What is some of the history behind physiology?

2

A

Mid-1700’s Galvani’s frog leg

Mid-1800’s Bernard and vivisection (operation on live animals for research)

1980-Present modern physiology rig

Advances were driven by technology

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11
Q

M1|L1

What are the types of anatomy?

The bigger picture

2

A

Gross anatomy: what you can see with the unaided eye, both superficial and deep structures

Microscopic anatomy: requires magnification (10x-1,000,000x), cytology (the study of cells), histology (the study of tissues), includes subcellular anatomy, cellular anatomy, and tissue anatomy

Seeing structures is extremely important for understanding how they work, but in isolation, and as part of a larger unit

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12
Q

M1|L1

What are the types of physiology?

The bigger picture

2

A

Molecular to whole organism

atoms → molecules → cells → tissues → organs → organ systems → organisms → population

chemical level → cellular level → tissue level → organ level → organ system level → organismal level

It is important to understand integration of function in the organism as a whole

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13
Q

M1|L1

What is the integration point of anatomy and physiology?

2

A

The cell is the fundamental building block

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14
Q

M1|L1

What are the many flavors of anatomy?

2

A

Level of detail: gross anatomy, histology, and cytology

Organisms of focus: comparative vertebrate anatomy

Area of interest: neuroanatomy, hepatoanatomy

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15
Q

M1|L1

What is the anatomical position of humans?

2

A

A person standing erect, with feet facing forward, the arms at the sides, palms of the hands facing interior, and fingers pointing straight down

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16
Q

M1|L1

What are the characteristics of the anatomic position

2

A

Standing upright

Feet parallel and on the floor

Head level and looking forward

Arms at the side of body

Palms facing forward and thumbs pointing away from body

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17
Q

M1|L1

What are the anatomic planes?

2

A

Coronal

Transverse

Midsagittal

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18
Q

M1|L1

What is the coronal (frontal) plane?

2

A

It divides the body into anterior (front) and posterior (back) parts

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19
Q

M1|L1

What is the transverse (horizontal) plane?

2

A

It divides the body into superior (upper) and inferior (lower) parts

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20
Q

M1|L1

What is the midsagittal (median) plane?

2

A

It divides the body into equal left and right halves

The sagittal plane divides the body into left adn right parts

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21
Q

M1|L1

How does the body maintain balance?

3

A

Homeostasis: a state of maintaining consistent internal conditions

Multiple “response loops” provide input and result in stabilizing output

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22
Q

M1|L1

Define homeostasis

3

A

Homeostasis indicates a state and maintenance of balance, in which internal conditions vary within a narrow range

Homeostasis enables the body to survive in diverse environments: cold, dry, hot, and wet

The integration between systems of the body

An organisms tendency to maintain a stable internal environment even though the external environment keeps changing

The body’s internal environment is maintained constantly to ensure survival and proper biological functioning of the body’s cellular constituents

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23
Q

M1|L1

slide 5

3

A
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24
Q

M1|L1

What are homeostatic control systems (HCS)?

3

A

Mechanisms that monitor the internal environment and correct as needed

There is the cellular level and the organ and whole-organism level

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25
Q

M1|L1

What is the cellular level of HCS?

3

A

“Local control”: isolated change in a few cells or a tissue, response emerges and acts locally

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26
Q

M1|L1

What is the organ and whole-organism level of HCS?

3

A

“Reflex control”: long-distance signaling, typically involving endocrine (hormonal) or neural responses

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27
Q

M1|L1

What are the three major components of HCS?

3

A

(input) input signal → (controller) integrating center→ (output) output signal

There has to be added elements for a full response loop

28
Q

M1|L1

What is the full response loop in HCS?

3

A

sensor → input signal → integrating center → output signal → target (“effector”) → response ← stimulus → sensor (and it starts over again as a loop)

29
Q

M1|L1

What are the functions of the integrator?

Homeostasis

3

A

The integrators (“control centers”):

Possess a “set point” within a normal range

Integrators look for “error signals” in input

Respond to correct “error” by controlling the target effector (ON or OFF)

30
Q

M1|L1

For modification of set-points, what are some questions to ask yourself?

Homeostasis

3

A

Think about what the stimuli and inputs are to the integrator in each case.

What are the outputs and responses?

HOW do these response loops help maintain homeostasis?

31
Q

M1|L1

How can set-points be modified?

Homeostasis

3

A

Fever: thermostat in brain, increases the set-point for core body temperature during fever [the integrator is the hypothalamus)

Acclimitization to environmental temperature, altitude (increased red blood cell count) [the integrator are the kidneys]

32
Q

M1|L1

Give an example of how set-points can be modified?

3

A

Circadian rhythms (daily rhythms of sleep, hunger, temperature regulation, etc.) are other instances where set-points for daily activity can be altered (by changes in seasonal lighting)

33
Q

M1|L1

What does each component of the response loop do?

Homeostasis

3

A

Stimulus: an “irritant” or change in the external or internal environment that triggers a response

Receptor: some type of sensor that monitors the environment and responds to changes called stimuli

Control center (integrator): determines the set point, analyzes the input, and decides what is the best response

Output: response signal from the control center/integrator

Effector: provides the means for the control center’s response

34
Q

M1|L1

What is the detailed full response loop?

3

A

sensor (receptor) → [the stimulus is relayed to integrator as input] → input (afferent neuron) → integrating center (change compared to set point) → output (hormone/neuron) → [integrator’s output sent to target effector] → target/effector (muscle/gland) → response (change corrected) ← stimulus (change in internal environment) (and it starts over again at senor)

35
Q

M1|L1

What can be said about heart rate?

Homeostasis - Example I

3

A

Antagonistic homeostatic control of heart rate

Adrenergic nervous system (ANS) input to the heart and its regulation

Regulation can be complex on the cellular and molecular levels

Antagonistic neurons control heart rate: some speed it up, while others slow it down

Stimulation by sympathetic nerves increase heart rate, stimulation by parasympathetic nerves decreases heart rate

36
Q

M1|L1

What can be said about glucose homeostasis?

Homeostasis - Example II

3

A

Two primary hormones: **antagonistic effects **
insulin (lowers blood glucose levels) ↔ glucagon (raises blood glucose levels)

The opposite actions of the two hormones, insulin and glucagon, help to maintain normal blood sugar levels in the body and hence maintain homeostasis of the body

37
Q

M1|L1

Identify the components of the response loop for excess blood glucose

see slide 14

3

A

Stimulus:

Receptor/sensor:

Input signal:

Integrator/controller:

Output signal:

Target/effector cells:

Response:

38
Q

M1|L1

What are some key examples of homeostasis?

State the system, organs/tissues, and representative functions

3

A

Circulatory - heart, blood vessels, blood - transport of materials between all cells of the body (blood pressure)

Digestive - stomach, intestines, liver, pancreas - conversion of food into particles that can be transported into the body; elimination of some wastes (nutrient levels)

Integumentary - skin - protection from external environment (body temperature)

Respiratory - lungs, airways - exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between the internal and external environments (blood O2/CO2 content)

Urinary - kidneys, bladder - maintenance of water and solutes in the internal environment; waste removal (blood composition/body osmolarity)

39
Q

M1|L1

What are simple ways we experience homeostasis?

3

A

Shivering on a cold day

Breathing heavily after running

Feeling faint when standing up quickly

40
Q

M1\L1

How do response loops operate?

4

A

Feedback loops can be both positive or negative feedback

41
Q

M1|L1

What is feedback?

4

A

The process in which: some part of the output of a system is returned to its input in order to regulate its further output

42
Q

M1|L1

What are the two loops in control systems?

4

A

Open loop control system (fire):

control unit → driver → motor

Closed loop control system (thermostat):

control unit → driver → motor → feedback → control unit

43
Q

M1|L1

Negative Feedback Loops

Overview

4

A

Negative feedback occurs when the output of a system acts to oppose changes to the input of the system

Negative feedback loops shut off the original input

Negative feedback loops help maintain homeostasis

Initial stimulus → response → stimulus (response loop shuts off)

Ex. body temperature risese → body sweats more → body temperature drops

A pathway in which the response opposes or removes the signal

44
Q

M1|L1

Negative Feedback Loops

Example

4

A

Glucose homeostasis

Two primary hormones: insulin and glucagon

elevated blood glucose levels → + insulin → lowers blood glucose levels → - insulin

decreased blood glucose levels → + glucagon → raises blood glucose levels → - glucagon

see card 36: the opposite actions of these two hormones, insulin and glucagon, help to maintain normal blood sugar levels in the body hence maintain homeostasis of the body

45
Q

M1|L1

Negative Feedback Loops

Summary

4

A

Prevent sudden, severe changes within the body

Counteract bodily disruption

Most common type of biological feedback loop

Self-terminating

Ex. body temperature, blood pressure, glucose regulation

Serve a homeostatic role

46
Q

M1|L1

Positive Feedback Loops

Overview

4

A

Positive feedback occurs when the output of a system acts to increase changes to the input of the system

Positive feedback loops require outside factors to shut down the system

Positve feedback loops ARE NOT homeostatic: response amplifies stimulus → sends organism further from setpoint

initial stimulus → response → + → stimuluse → response

Ex. account balance grows → more interest earned → account balance grows, immunological responses

a signal that reinforces the stimulus, immunological respones

47
Q

M1|L1

Positive Feedback Loops

Examples

4

A

Uterine contractions (intensify over time):

baby drops lower in uterus to initiate labor → cervical stretch →stimulates→ oxytocin release →causes→ uterine contractions* → push baby against cervix →causing→ cervical stretch, etc.

*delivery of baby stops the cycle

Lactation:

stimulus (baby suckles at nipple) → suckling sends impulses to hypothalamus → hypothalamus signals posterior pituitary to release oxytocin → oxytocin released into bloodstream stimulates milk ejection from mammary gland →milk is released and the baby continues to feed→ baby feeds and continues suckling (positive feedback

48
Q

M1|L1

Positive Feedback Loops

Summary

4

A

Increase (amplify) the actions of the body

Produce more instability in the body

Positive feedback mechanisms are short-lived

Cycle does not terminate by itself

Control relatively infrequent events that do not require continuous adjustments (ie. child birth)

NOT homeostatic (in general)

49
Q

M1|L1

Feedback Loops

A question

4

A

Blood clotting: a normal response to a break in blood vessel lining

  1. vessel damage occurs, initiating feedback loop
  2. blood elements called platelets begin to bind to site of injury on exposed collagen fibers (This process depends upon molecular recognition & binding)
  3. bound (and activated) platelets release clotting factors that activate and attract even more platelets
  4. this sequence forms a clot
  5. vessel damage now sealed

(1) break or tear in the blood vessel wall →feedback cycle initiated→ (2) clotting occurs as platelets adhere to site and release chemicals* → (4) clotting proceeds until break is sealed by newly formed clot → (3) released chemicals attract more platelets

*feedback cycle ends

What type of feedback is at play?
positive (?)

50
Q

M1|L2

How do substances move across a selectively permeable membrane?

5

A

Passive processes: diffusion, osmosis, facilitated diffusion, bulk flow

51
Q

M1|L2

What is the structure of the plasma membrane?

5

A

**SLIDE 6
**Lipid bilayer: hydrophilic heads and hydrophobic tails,

Liposome:

Fluid mosaic:

52
Q

M1|L2

What are the functions of the plasma membrane?

5

A

Physical barrier

Gateway for exchange

Communication

Site of attachment to: other cells, extracellular proteins, intracellular proteins (ie. cytoskeleton)

53
Q

M1|L2

What is membrane transport?

5

A

The movement of ions or molecules across a cell membrane

54
Q

M1|L2

What are the transported species?

Membrane Transport

5

A

Water, gases (O2/CO2), ions (Na+, K+, etc.), sugar, neurotransmitters, peptides, nutrients, hormones, etc.

55
Q

M1|L2

What are the types of transport through cell layers?

Membrane Transport

5

A

Transcellular

Paracellular

56
Q

M1|L2

What are the types of transport?

Membrane Transport

5

A

Passive transport

Active transport

57
Q

M1|L2

What is passive transport?

Membrane Transport

5

A

Passive transport does NOT require energy from the cell

Materials spontaneously move: FROM a region of HIGHER concentration TO a region of LOWER concentration

Movement is down a concentration gradient

This type of movement is called diffusion

“downhill”

58
Q

M1|L2

What is active transport?

Membrane Transport

5

A

Active transport REQUIRES energy input

Energy is typically in the form of ATP, used either directly or indirectly

Materials are actively moved: TO a region of higher concentration FROM a region of lower concentration

Movement against (or “up”) a concentration gradient

“up-hill”

59
Q

M1|L2

What are the characteristics of passive transport?

5

A

All involve diffusion

All permit transmembrane flow

None require energy from the cell

60
Q

M1|L2

What are the types of passive transport?

5

A

Simple diffusion by random molecular motion: effective only at short distance

Osmosis (H2O movement): the flow of water across membranes

Facilitated diffusion: involves either large and/or polar (charged) molecules, requires a specific integral membrane protein that will bind to the molecule being “transported” (the membrane protein is called a “transport” protein”)

Bulk filtration: involves the flow of both liquids (solvents) and dissolved molecules (solutes), in response to pressure (can override diffusional/gradient considerations), provides large-scale, mass movement

61
Q

M1|L2

What is simple diffusion?

5

A

The random motion of molecules in solution

Results in molecules spreading from areas of high concentration to areas of low concentration

62
Q

M1|L2

What are the properties of simple diffusion?

5

A

Passive and RANDOM process (individual molecule has equal chance of moving in any direction)

High concentration to low (gradient dissipates and spreads out over time)

Net movement till concentrations are uniformly equal (even distribtion of molecules over time, once the concentration is equal, molecules will keep moving but because there isn’t a gradient, the process of molecular diffusion is done)

Rapid and effective over short distances

Directly related to temperature (higher the temp, higher diffusion rate)

Inversely related to molecular size and fluid viscosity (small molecules in less viscous solvents diffuse faster than large molecules in more viscous solvents)

Can occur in an open system or across a partition (diffusion across a plasma membrane)

63
Q

M1|L2

Why are most cells in the body are within 100 mm of a capillary?

Simple diffusion question

5

A

This spacing provides sufficient diffusion of oxygen, nutrients, and waste products to support and maintain viable tissue

64
Q

M1|L2

Fick’s Law of Diffusion

Simple diffusion equation

5

A

Net flux = Js
Of a solute = S
In 1 dimension = x

Jnet = - Ds (dCs/dx)

In words: Flux (overall flow; Jnet) equals the negative of product of solute diffusion coefficient (Ds) and solute concentration gradient (dCs/dx)

J describes the movement of molecules

Ds: cm2/sec
dCs/dx: (moles/cm3)/cm
Jnet: (moles/cm2)/sec [the cm2 is an AREA]

65
Q

M1|L2

What

5

A

PNB 2774 (4 decks)

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