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pnb 2774 > E1 > Flashcards

E1 Flashcards

1
Q

Anatomy

A

Biological structure

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2
Q

Physiology

A

Cell, tissue, organ function

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3
Q

Right/Left Orientation

A

Left or right sides of the body which is reversed if you are looking at someone head on

Left shoulder is left compared to the right shoulder

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4
Q

Superior/Inferior Orientation

A

Superior is above/up

Inferior is below/down

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5
Q

Rostral/Caudal

A

Rostral means toward the head

Caudal means toward the tail

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6
Q

Anterior/Posterior or Ventral/Dorsal

A

Anterior/Ventral is front

Posterior/Dorsal is back

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7
Q

Medial/Lateral

A

Medial is toward the midline

Lateral is away from the midline

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8
Q

Proximal/Distal

A

Proximal is up on an appendage

Distal is down on an appendage

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9
Q

Superficial/Deep

A

Superficial is toward the skin

Deep is away from the skin

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10
Q

Lungs are what compared to shoulders?

A

Medial

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11
Q

The elbow is what compared to the hand?

A

Proximal

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12
Q

Anatomic Planes

A

Coronal

Transverse

Midsagittal

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13
Q

Coronal (frontal)

A

Divides body into anterior (front) and posterior (back) parts

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14
Q

Transverse (horizontal)

A

Divides body into superior (upper) and inferior (lower) parts

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15
Q

Midsagittal (median)

A

Divides body into equal right and left halves

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16
Q

What plane is an x-ray of a head facing the side in?

A

Sagittal

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17
Q

What plane is an x-ray of a head from the top in?

A

Transverse

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18
Q

Homeostasis

A

A state and maintenance of balance in which internal conditions vary within a narrow range

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19
Q

What conditions does homeostasis allow organisms to survive through?

A

Diverse environments

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20
Q

Homeostatic control systems (definition)

A

Mechanisms monitor the internal environment and correct as needed

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21
Q

Local control

A

Isolated change in a few cells or a tissue, response emerges and acts locally

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22
Q

Reflex control

A

Long distance signaling typically involving endocrine (hormonal) or neural responses

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23
Q

Homeostatic control system process major components

A

Input signal → integrating center → output signal

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24
Q

Full response loop

A

Begins with stimulus → sensor → input signal → integration center → output signal → target/effector → response and then goes back to stimulus

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25
Q

Integrator function

A

Control center which possess a set point within a normal range

Looks for error signal in input

It responds to correct error by targeting effector and turn it on or off

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26
Q

Fever

A

Thermostat in brain (hypothalamus) increases the set-point for core body temperature

27
Q

Acclimatization

A

Acclimating to environmental temperature, altitude, etc. increases red blood cell count with integrator being the kidney which filters blood

28
Q

Feedback

A

Output system is returned to its input in order to regulate its further output

29
Q

Negative feedback loops

A

Output of a system acts to oppose changes to the input of the system to shut off original input

Helps maintain homeostasis

Most common type of biological feedback loop

30
Q

Insulin glucagon negative feedback

A

Insulin lowers blood glucose levels and glucagon raises blood glucose levels

31
Q

Positive feedback loops

A

Output of a system acts to increase changes to the input of the system

Require outside factors to shut down the system

Not homeostatic as response amplifies stimulus and sends organism further from set point

Produces more instability in the body. Short-lived and rare

Example: uterine contractions during childbirth and lactation

32
Q

What kind of feedback is blood clotting?

A

Positive feedback because platelets begin to bind to the site of injury on exposed collagen fibers and release clotting factors continuously that activate and attract even more platelets forming a clot which stops the process

33
Q

Plasma membrane function and structure*

A

Physical barrier, gateway for exchange, communication, site of attachment to other cells and proteins. Has a phospholipid bilayer which has hydrophilic heads on surfaces and a hydrophobic fatty acid side chain

34
Q

Transcellular vs. Paracellular path

A

Transcellular path is through the cell

Paracellular path is in between cells through tight junctions

35
Q

Passive transport

A

Does not require energy

Materials spontaneously move from a region of higher concentration to a region of lower concentration

Movement down a concentration gradient

Called DIFFUSION

36
Q

Active transport

A

Requires energy input

Materials are actively moved to a region of higher concentration from a region of lower concentration

Movement against or up a concentration gradient

37
Q

Types of passive transport

A

Simple diffusion, osmosis, facilitated diffusion, and bulk filtration

38
Q

Simple diffusion

A

The random motion of molecules in solution

High to low concentration

Net movement until concentrations are equal but molecules still move

Rapid over short distances

Directly related to temperature

Inversely related to molecular size and fluid viscosity

Can occur in an open system or across a partition

39
Q

Why are most cells in the body within 100 micrometers of a capillary?

A

So there is a short path for diffusion

40
Q

Fick’s law of diffusion

A

Calculates for flux: movement in one direction over an area

Takes into account diffusion coefficient and the concentration gradient

It’s derived as = rate of diffusion = (temperature x membrane surface area x membrane permeability x concentration gradient) / membrane thickness

Membrane permeability = lipid solubility / molecular size.

41
Q

Einstein’s solution to simple diffusion

A

In time t an average diffusion particle will travel a distance d of (2Dt)^1/2 away from its starting point; however that is for one dimension

Real life is 3-D and the 3-D equation is d = (6Dt)^1/2 or square root of 6 x D (constant) x t

The distance gained by diffusional motion increases as the square root of time rather than as a direct proportion of time

42
Q

How do you maximize surface area?

A

Expand surface area and thin epithelia

43
Q

Osmosis

A

Diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane solutes decrease water concentration so water will move from high to low concentration

The higher the solute concentration the higher the osmotic pressure

44
Q

Equation for osmotic pressure

Osmotic pressure in cells?

A

P = MRT

P in cells = 7.63 atm
M = molarity in moles/L
R = gas constant = 0.0821 Latm/(molK)
T = Kelvin temperature

45
Q

Facilitated diffusion

A

Involves either large or polar charged molecules

Requires a specific integral membrane protein that will bind to the molecule being transported

This membrane protein is called a transport protein

46
Q

Bulk filtration

A

Involves diffusion of both liquid solvents and dissolved aqueous molecules or solutes typically in response to pressure

Provides efficient large scale, mass movement

Contrasting to diffusion its due to the motion of random individual molecules rather than net movement of molecules in a solution

47
Q

Channels

A

Typically for ions

Passive

Classic facilitated diffusion

48
Q

Carriers

A

Doorman mechanism

Uniport, symport, or antiport

May be passive or active

49
Q

Pumps

A

Typically for ions

Active

Requires direct energy usage usually in the form of ATP

Use the alternative access model

50
Q

Types of channels

A

Leak channel-channel randomly opens and closes, ligand channel-chemical stimulus opens the channel, and pull channel-mechanical stimulus opens the channel

51
Q

Ion channels

A

May have high selectivity but pass ions fast due to dipoles, customized cages, and multiple ion occupancy

Classic example of facilitated diffusion

52
Q

Channelopathies

A

Diseases or disorders associated with ion channel dysfunction

53
Q

Transporters function*

A

Transport of solutes across a cell membrane, transporters can facilitate active or passive transport

They are not designed for speed

Alternating access model in which carrier proteins cycle between multiple conformations in which a solute binding site is accessible from one side or the other but never both (occlusion state)

54
Q

Passive carrier

A

Conformational change allows carrier to facilitate movement of a molecule with its concentration gradient

55
Q

Active carrier

A

Movement of molecules against concentration gradient can be active or secondary

56
Q

Primary active transport

A

Directly requires ATP

The movement of solutes against their concentration gradient

57
Q

Secondary active transport*

A

Utilizes energy stored in a pre existing concentration gradient

The movement of solutes down their concentration gradients provides energy for the movement of other solutes AGAINST their concentration gradient

58
Q

Uniport

A

One type of molecule goes through gradient

59
Q

Symport secondary active transport

A

One molecule going from high to low concentration creates a binding site for another molecule which is going from low to high concentration and brings it with it into the cell

60
Q

Antiport secondary active transport

A

One molecule going from high to low concentration out of the cell

61
Q

Na+glucose transporter (SGLT)

A

Na+-Glucose secondary active symporter

Then at the basolateral membrane there is a GLUT transporter which transfers glucose from high to low concentration into the extracellular fluid so there is a flow of glucose through the cell from apical membrane to the basolateral membrane

However to maintain this Na+ levels must be kept low inside the cell so a Na+K+ ATPase pump pumps Na+ out of the cell from low concentration to high concentration utilizing energy

62
Q

A group of mutant mice have difficulty-maintaining balance, and walk in zigzags

This defect has been attributed to a neuronal and glial (neuroglial) sodium-coupled glutamate transporter (called EAAT37) important in maintaining low glutamate levels in the extracellular space

Assume that sodium is more concentrated on the outside of the cell than inside

Assume that glutamate is more concentrated inside the cell than outside

Suddenly, you increase by the glutamate concentration inside the neuroglia

What effect will this have on the ability of EAAT37 to concentrate glutamate with ?

a. It will severely compromise their ability to concentrate glutamate
b. It will have a minimal effect
c. It will greatly facilitate their ability to concentrate glutamate
d. It will cause neuroglia to extrude glutamate to the outside

A

b. It will have a minimal effect

63
Q

Transporter proper

A

Exclude ion channels and pumps

Membrane proteins that facilitated substance passage across the membrane by the alternating access mechanism but do not use ATP or direct energy

They consist of carriers and exchangers

pnb 2774 (4 decks)

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