Exam 1 Flashcards
anthropology
the study of human cultural and biological variation and evolution
culture
learned behavior including social systems, economic systems, marriage customs, religion and philosophy
biocultural approach
studying humans in terms of the interaction between biology and culture in evolutionary adaptation (ex. Bio – sweating, cultural – clothing)
variation
difference between individuals, populations, or species
comparative approach
comparing human populations to determine common and unique behaviors or biological traits
evolution
the change in living organisms over generations
adaptation
the process of successful interaction between a population and an environment
holism
the idea that the parts of a system interconnect and interact to make up the whole, takes into account all aspects of existence to understand human variation and evolution
participant-observation fieldwork
method common in cultural anthropology that involves living with, observing and participating in the same activities as the people one studies
Main anthropology approaches
Holism, Comparison, Dynamism, Fieldwork
Carolus Linnaeus (1707-1778)
evolution theory, first taxonomy into meaningful groups. Developed genus and species terminology, based on characteristics in a hierarchical system
Georges Cuvier (1769-1832)
used presence of extinct fossil remains in quarries to argue for catastrophism (a great catastrophe)
Jean Baptiste Lamarck
thought acquired characteristics were passed on to offspring (not true)
Industrial melanism example
peppered moths in industrial England, dark and light due to the environment to blend in. Frequencies of each kind of moth changed dramatically in the presence of absence of pollution due to soot changing color of tree
Scopes Trial
“monkey” trial in 1925, trial of teacher who taught evolution to a class in Dayton, Tennessee; first trial to openly discuss evolution in science vs. religion, lost trial but great impact
“creation science”
(evolution based on religion and God): is not a science and fails all objective tests of the scientific method, it is falsifiable and has been repeatedly falsified
5 subdisciplines of Anthropology
Cultural
Archaeology (prehistorical and historical)
Linguistic
Biological
Applied Anthropology (sometimes left out)
Major subfields of bio anthro
Primatology
Paleoanthropology
Molecular Anthropology
Bioarcheology
Forensic Anthro
Human Biology
Osteology
study of bones, learn how to describe and identify
Microscopy
tools that look at the details of bones and why they have certain marks
phylogeny
evolutionary history
key components of scientific method
o Exploration
o Discovery
o Observations
o Hypothesis
o Predictions
o Test
o Hypothesis supported or rejected
science consists of
facts, hypotheses and theories
facts
verifiable truths
monogenism vs. polygenism
mono - all people share a common single origin
poly - different people have different origins
gene
stretch of DNA that codes for a protein (all traits are caused by proteins)
we have ~15,000 but make ~100,000 proteins
what shapes different proteins?
amino acids
introns vs. exons
in - non-coding parts of DNA
ex - coding parts of DNA
prokaryotes vs. eukaryotes
pro - don’t have internal compartments for organelles or nucleus, don’t have introns
eu - have nucleus, internal organelles and introns
why can prokaryotes replicate so fast?
because they don’t have introns so quick replication and only one protein per gene
mendelian genetics
simple genetic traits
DNA
deoxyribonucleic acid
double stranded
A-T, G-C
organized in chromosomes
Chromosomes
made of condensed DNA wrapped around histones (DNA wrapped around proteins)
how many chromosomes in body cells and sex cells?
body - 46 (23 pairs)
sex - 23 (23 single)
diploid vs. haploid
Hap - sex chromosomes
dip - all other chromosomes
genomes
complete compliment of genetic material from an individual
RNA
ribonucleic acid
single stranded
involved in protein synthesis
T is replaced with U
genes
DNA is grouped into patterns which code for proteins
regulatory vs. homeobox genes
regulatory - genes that control when other genes turn on and off and what they express
home - special class of regulatory genes that regulate embryonic development (segmentation, etc.), only produce something once or twice (eyes, ears, fingers, etc. (sometimes cancer can turn this on again for nasty tumors)
3 phases of cell cycle
interphase
mitosis
cytokinesis
cytokinesis
final splitting into two daughter cells
Mitosis
prophase - chromosomes shorten and thicken
metaphase - chromosomes align on the equator
anaphase - chromosomes pulled to opposite poles
telophase - membranes reform and begin to deal off
ending with 2 daughter cells, each with 46 single-stranded chromosomes
interphase
G1 - grow cell
S - duplicate chromosomes
G2 - grow more
cells spend 18-24 hrs in this phase
what happens when a cell escapes its cycle?
can become cancerous
what phase does replication happen in?
interphase
meiosis I
identical to mitosis
meiosis II
reduction to haploid
identical to mitosis as well, just different as the product ends with 4 daughter cells, each with 23 single stranded chromosomes
crossing over/recombination
exchange of genetic material between homologous (sister) chromosomes
occurs during mitosis and meiosis
germ line vs. somatic mutations
germ - passed on to the next generation through the sperm or eggs
somatic - occurs in somatic/non-reproductive cells, won’t be passed onto offspring
point mutation
affecting a single nucleotide
substitution
replacement of one nucleotide by another
purines (pur)
A and G
Pyrimidines (pyr)
C, U, T
transitions vs. transversions
transitions - pur-pur or pyr-pyr
transversions - pyr-pur or pur-pyr
synonymous/silent mutations
causes no change in the amino acid
missense mutations
changes the codon and the amino acid to a different amino acid
nonsense mutations
changes codon to stop codon
wobble base
third position in the codon, if changed will still most likely code for the same a.a.
transcription
the process of making mRNA from DNA
translation
the process of making/assembling a.a. into proteins from mRNA
replication
the process of duplication DNA strands prior to cell division
frame-shift mutation
insertion or deletion that changes the reading frame of DNA sequence
trisomy vs. monosomy
trisomy - 3 chromosomes instead of 2 (trisomy 21 is down syndrome)
monosomy - 1 chromosome instead of 2 (monosomy of X is turners syndrome)
polymorphic vs. monomorphic
poly - more than one allele at a locus
mono - only one allele at a locus
phenotype vs. genotype
pheno - physical characteristics
geno - genetic code
homozygous vs. heterozygous
homo - two of the same alleles in a genotype
hetero - two different alleles in a genotype
incomplete dominance
when the heterozygote has an intermediate phenotype between the two homozygotes (ex. ww/white when crossed with WW/red makes Ww/pink)
who investigated incomplete dominance/independent genes?
Mendel
mendel’s law of segregation
at any locus, you have two alleles, a paternal chromosome and a maternal chromosome and it is selected randomly which one you will inherit
mendel’s laws of inheritance
law of independent assortment - different loci (on different chromosomes) are transmitted independently of each other
linkage
when two genes are close together on a chromosome, alleles of the two genes are usually transmitted together
linkage disequilibrium vs. equilibrium
dis - two completely linked genes
equil - completely unlinked genes
polygenic vs. pleiotrophy
poly - when many loci affect a single trait
plei - when one loci affects many traits
heritability
the proportion of the total variation of a trait due to genetic variation
genetic variation Heritability = ------------------------
genetic var. + environmental var.
dominant vs. recessive examples
sickle cell - rec
free hanging earlobes - dom
PTC taste - dom/don’t like foods
darwin’s tubercle - dom
hitchhiker’s thumb - rec
tongue rolling - dom
what disease was Lincoln thought to have had?
Marfan syndrome
pros and cons to studying humans
pro - records/histories, can describe symptoms
con - cannot control breeding, small families, long time to reproductive age and generation time
autosomal dom traits
cannot skip generation
males and females affected =
every individual needs @ least 1 affected parent
autosomal rec traits
can skip generation
males and females =
X-linked dom traits
all affected males produce affected daughters
2x females than males affected
homo female transmits trait to all offspring
X-linked rec traits
more males affected than females
Y-linked traits
male to male only
cannot skip generation
Mitocondrial transmission
only passed down by female, if mom is affected so will all offspring
proband
the person that brought you into the pedigree. The reason you collected the pedigree. Often an affected individual.
penetrance
The proportion of the time someone has the genotype associated with a phenotype. 100% means you are born with it and everyone with that genotype has that phenotype
expressivity
for variable traits, how strongly is it expressed. ranges from undetectable to 100%
evolution
small changes in DNA lead to changes in the proteins
microevolution
changes of allele frequency in a pop from one gen to the next
macroevolution
long term patterns of genetic change over thousands or millions of generations, includes species formation
population genetics
the study of the total pattern genetic variation of biological pop
breeding population
the proportion of a pop that chooses mates from within that group
census population
the actual total pop, this # is always larger than the breeding pop due to:
children
uneven sex ratios
polygamy (same men : women)
polyandry (more men than women)
polygyny (more women than men)
allele frequency
relative proportion of alleles within a pop
genotype frequency
of individuals with each genotype divided by the total # of individuals in the population
HWE
p^2 + 2pq + q^2 =1
p = dominant
q = recessive
AA = p^2
Aa = 2pq
aa = q^2
Chi square test
______ (obs-exp)^2
x^2 = ——————
_______ exp
use graph, if p value is <0.05, HWE is invalid
back mutation
mutations reintroducing alleles back into a pop after they are lost
wild type allele
original, common, non-disease or “normal” version of gene
fertility
the production of offspring
fecundity
the ability to produce children
morality
death or death rate
balancing selection
selection for the heterozygote and against the homozygote
stabilizing selection
selection against both extreme values in a continuous trait, leads to a decrease in genetic diversity
ex) babies shouldn’t be under or over weight
directional selection
selection against one extreme in a continuous trait and or selection for the other extreme
ex) faster rabbits will survive and reproduce more than slower ones
diversifying selection
selection for the extremes in a continuous trait and against the average traits
ex) finch beaks vary on food source (nuts=crooked, vegetation=thin, insects=thick)
genetic drift
random change in allele frequency from one generation to the next
the bigger the pop size, the small effect of drift on allele frequencies
increase variation affects
migration
mutation
diversifying selection
decrease variation affects
most selection
genetic drift
bottleneck
when a pop is greatly reduced in size (ex. due to pandemic, natural disaster, etc.)
taxonomic categories
kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, species
anagenesis (straight line evolution)
the transformation of a single species over time
ex) A becomes B, B becomes C, etc.
paleospecies
species identified from the fossil record based on physical similarities and differences with other species along an evolutionary line, extinct species only identified by fossil record
cladogenesis (branching evolution)
the formation of one or more species from another over time
ex) A becomes B but A is still around, B becomes C but B is still around, etc.
clade
everything in a clade is more related to each other than anything outside the clade
ex) humans, chimpanzees and gorillas
speciation
the origin of new species, happens through RIB
new species easier to arrive with a small pop due to genetic drift
reproductive isolating barrier (RIBs)
the reduction or elimination of gene flow between parent and daughter species
monophyletic
all members of the group are in one clade, and no non-members are within the clade (all descendants on a family tree are considered the same group)
recognition species concept
the most inclusive pop of biparental organisms which share common fertilization system, see each other as possible mates
phylogenetic species concept
a monophyletic clade can be trace back to a similar ancestor when compared to another group
phylogenetic tree!
pre-zygotic barriers (before fertilization)
ecological/habitat isolation
temporal isolation (different mating times in the year or day)
ethological isolation (behavioral)
mechanical isolation (ex. chihuahua and great dane cannot mate)
gametic mortality/incompatibility (sperm doesn’t make it to the egg)
post-zygotic barriers (after fertilization)
F1 inviability (reduced inviability)
F1 sterility (hybrids have reduced sterility)
Hybrid breakdown (backcross have one or more of the above, ex. donkeys and horses make mules but mules cannot mate with each other)
how can new species form?
small pop where mutations and genetic drifts have larger effects
how much change accompanies speciation/how can speciation take place?
lots of small differences
a single “macro” mutation
- punctuated equilibria (gaps in the fossil record)
- changes in genes or demographic events
sudden speciation terms
polyploidization
chromosomal rearrangements
changes in mating system
translocations
stratigraphy
the study of relationships
strata - layers of the earth
adaptive radiation
the formation of many new species following the availability of new environments of the development of new adaption (ex. species after the astroid and honey creepers being washed away to Hawaii)
gradualism
a slow steady accumulation of changes over time
predicts smooth transition in the fossil record from one species to another
punctuated equilibrium
a model of macroevolutionary with no intermediate steps
predicts jagged fossil record with big changes, long periods of staying the same and then a big change
misconceptions about evolution
-bigger doesn’t = better
-newer doesn’t = better
-natural selection doesn’t always work
-no inevitable direction of evolution
-no one perfect form!
-our brains have not gotten larger for a while
-natural selection doesn’t always produce perfect structures
-all structures are not adaptive
-current structures do not always reflect initial adaptations
orthogenesis
a discredited idea that evolution would continue in a given direction because of some vaguely defined non-physical force until a perfect structure is formed
polyploidization
hybridization between pops with differing chromosomal compositions
chromosomal rearrangements
translocations, inversions, deletions, #’s
changes in mating system
self-incompatibility, physical differences
translocations
one chromosome breaking off and joining another chromosome
