Exam 1 Flashcards
What are the 4 anatomical sciences?
gross anatomy
histology
embryology
neuroanatomy
What are the 4 types of tissues?
epithelial
connective
muscle
nervous
Approximately how many different cell types are there?
210
What are the main organelles that we can see through a microscope?
nucleus (largest)
mitochondria
golgi apparatus
ER
What are the supramolecular assemblies?
membrane
ribosomes
chromatin
microtubules
What are the macromolecules?
proteins
polysaccharides (ex glycogen)
lipids (ex cholesterol)
nucleic acids
What is the definition of a gene?
segment of genetic material that codes for production of a particular protein
What are the building block molecules?
amino acids
glucose
nitrogenous bases
palmitic acid, linoleic acid (fat metabolism)
What is included in the atomic/ionic level?
Na+
K+
Ca2+
major extracellular cation
Na+
major intracellular cation
K+
organ systems-organs-tissues-cells-organelles-?
supramolecular assembliesโmacromoleculesโbuilding block moleculesโatomic/ionic level
describe the integrative approach?
put the parts back together to understand how they work together
describe the reductionism approach?
break things down to understand how each one works
What can be seen with the naked eye with right background?
mammalian ovum (120-140 ovums)
What is the average size of a cell?
8-10 microns (micrometer)
Why are cells so small?
-surface area/ volume for exchange
-ionic flux and water flux across cell membrane
What is the formula for surface area of a sphere?
4ฯr^2
What is the formula for volume of a sphere?
4/3ฯr^3
What is the term for the internal environment where cells are found?
interstitial fluid
What is the water content of a cell?
70%-85%
How much water is in the interstitial fluid?
90%
How much water is in blood plasma?
92%
-the distance by which two objects must be separated to be seen as two objects
-determined by the spacing of the photoreceptor cells in the retina
resolving power
What does resolution depend on?
wavelength of the light source, specimen thickness, quality of fixation, and staining intensity
function of the light source?
illumination of the specimen
function of the condenser lens?
to focus the beam of light at the level of the specimen
function of the stage?
where the slide or specimen is placed
function of the objective lens?
to gather the light that has passed through the specimen
What must be done to a specimen for it to be viewed under a microscope?
it must be sliced into a 2-dimensional structure
a defect caused by an error in the preparation process
artifact
enables examination of unstained cells and tissues and is especially useful for living cells
phase contrast microscope
in phase contrast microscopy, dark portions correspond to _________
dense portions
what does the interference microscope allow for?
quantification of tissue mass
what is the differential interference microscope useful for?
assessing surface properties of cells and other biologic objects
In _______________only light that has been scattered or diffracted by structures in the specimen reaches the object
dark-field microscopy
a pink acidic dye that carries a net negative charge; reacts with cationic groups
eosin
acts as a basic dye (blue) and carries a net positive charge; reacts with negatively charged ionized phosphate groups in nucleic acids
hematoxylin
uses the interaction of a beam of electrons with a specimen to produce an image
Transmission electron microscopes (TEM)
use electrons reflected or forced out of the specimen surface that are collected by detectors and reprocessed to form an image of a sample surface
scanning electron microscopes (SEM)
made of polymerized proteins that form microtubules, intermediate filaments, and actin filaments
cytoskeleton
What is the largest organelle within a cell?
the nucleus
structures that are not usually surrounded by a plasma membrane; include crystals, glycogen, stored waste products
inclusions
a lipid bilayer that forms the cell boundary as well as the boundaries of many organelles within the cell
plasma membrane
a region of the ER associated with ribosomes and the site of protein synthesis and modification of newly synthesized proteins
rER
a region of ER involved in lipid and steroid synthesis but not associated with ribsomes
sER
a membranous organelle composed of multiple flattened cristernae responsible for modifying, sorting, and packaging proteins and lipids for intracellular or extracellular transport
golgi apparatus
membrane-bounded compartments interposed within endocytotic pathways that have the major function of sorting proteins delivered to them via endocytotic vesicles and redirecting them to different cellular compartments for their final destination
Endosome
small organelles containing digestive enzymes that are formed from endosomes by targeted delivery of unique membrane proteins and enzymes
lysosomes
organelles that provide most of the energy to the cell by producing ATP in the process of oxidative phosphorylation
mitochondria
small organelles involved in the production and degradation of H2O2 and degradation of fatty acids
peroxisomes
element of the cytoskeleton that continuously elongate and shorten (dynamic instability)
microtubules
provide tensile strength to withstand tension and confer resistance to shearing forces
actin and intermediate filaments
protein complexes that enzymatically degrade damaged and unnecessary proteins into small polypeptides and amino acids
proteasomes
How does the cell membrane appear through TEM?
as two electron-dense layers separated by an intermediate nonstaining layer
What does the cell membrane primarily consist of?
phospholipid, cholesterol and protein molecules
proteins embedded within the lipid bilayer or pass through the bilayer completely
integral membrane proteins
proteins not embedded within the lipid bilayer
peripheral membrane proteins
surface molecules constitute a layer at the surface of the cell referred to as the ________
cell coat or glycocalyx
localized regions that contain high concentrations of cholesterol and glycosphingolipids
lipid rafts
regarded as the molecular markers of lipid rafts and are considered to be scaffolding proteins
flotillins
proteins that have the capacity to bind cholesterol and a variety of proteins that are involved in signal transduction
caveolins
Why does signal transduction occur more rapidly and efficiently in lipid rafts?
close proximity of interacting proteins
How was the existence of proteins within the substance of the plasma membrane confirmed?
freeze fracture
-transport certain ions across the membrane
-transport metabolic precursors of macromolecules across membranes
pumps
allow the passage of small ions, molecules, and water across the plasma membrane
channels
allow recognition and localized binding of ligands in processes such as hormonal stimulation, coated-vesicle endocytosis, and antibody reactions
receptor proteins
anchor the intracellular cytoskeleton to the extracellular matrix
linker proteins
morphologic changes in the cellโs plasma membrane that result in the formation of plasma-membrane blebs
cell injury
caused by the detachment of the plasma membrane from underlying actin filaments of the cell cytoskeleton
plasma-membrane blebs
the process by which extracellular stimuli are received, processed, and conveyed by the cell to regulate its own physiologic responses
cell signaling
mechanisms by which cells respond to the external environment
signal transduction pathways
addition of phosphate groups
phosphorylation
addition of a diverse selection of sugar moities
glycosylation
attaching acetyl functional groups
acetylation
adding methyl groups
methylation
reaction of nitric oxide with protein-free cysteine residues
nitrosylation
attaching ubiquitin protein
ubuitination
addition of small ubiquitin-related modifier protein
SUMOylation
small fat-soluble, uncharged molecules and gases cross the plasma membrane down their concentration gradient without expenditure of metabolic energy and without help of transport proteins
simple or passive diffusion
-transfer small, water-soluble molecules
-highly selective
-after binding, it undergoes a series of conformational changes and releases the molecule on the other side of the membrane
carrier proteins
-transfer small, water-soluble molecules
-made of transmembrane proteins with several membrane-spanning domains that create hydrophilic channels through the membrane
channel proteins
-penetrates the membrane bilayer and serves as an ion-selectivity filter
pore domain
a process that involves configurational changes in the plasma membrane at localized sites and subsequent formation of vesicles from the membrane or fusion of vesicles with the membrane
vesicular transport
What is the major mechanisms by which large molecules enter, leave, and move within the cell?
vesicle budding
What are the 3 fluid compartments?
intracellular fluid, blood plasma, and interstitial fluid
epithelial cells that line the blood vessels
endothelium
pores in capillary walls
fenestrations
What are the different types of diffusion gradients?
concentration, electrical, pressure
columnar epithelial cells involved in absorption of nutrients
enterocytes
increase absorptive surface area of the cell
microvilli
ER that is studded with ribosomes
ergastoplasm
What is the equation for starlingโs forces?
NFP=(Pc-Pi)-(๐c-๐i)
NFP
net filtration pressure
๐
osmotic pressure
c
capillary
i
interstitial fliud
p
hydrostatic pressure
What is the normal Pc of the arterial end?
35 mmHg
What is the normal Pi of the arterial end?
0 mmHg
What is the normal ๐c of the arterial end?
28 mmHg
What is the normal ๐i of the arterial end?
5 mmHg
What is the normal Pc of the venous end ?
15 mmHg
What is the normal Pi of the venous end?
0 mmHg
What is the normal ๐c of the venous end?
28 mmHg
What is the normal ๐i of the venous end?
5 mmHG
Why is the NFP of the venous end negative?
so fluid can return to the capillary
Simple squamous epithelium that lines the internal cavities of the body
Mesothelium
Simple cuboidal cells that make up the liver parenchyma
Hepatocytes
resemble epithelium but share characteristics
epitheliod
