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Physiology > Exam 1 > Flashcards

Exam 1 Flashcards

1
Q

what is physiology

A

the study of the functioning of living organisms

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2
Q

what are the 7 levels that physiology is studied on

A

molecules, cells, tissue, organs, organ systems, organisms, populations

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3
Q

what is a teleological explanation

A

why it happens
(what function or benefit it provides)

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4
Q

what is a mechanistic explanation

A

how it happens
(what is the mechanism/steps in the process)

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5
Q

what are the 4 themes in physiology

A

structure and function
biological energy use
information flow
homeostasis

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6
Q

what are two subtypes of structure and function

A

molecular interactions
compartmentation

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7
Q

what is homeostasis

A

the ability of the body to maintain a relatively constant internal environment

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8
Q

what are examples of regulated variables that cells require a narrow range for

A

temperature, ph, ion concentration, nutrient availability

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9
Q

what is the setpoint

A

the desired range that the body keeps regulated variables within

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10
Q

what is the function of the control system

A

maintain homeostasis

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11
Q

what is the stimulus

A

regulated variable that deviates from normal range

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12
Q

what is the sensor

A

what monitors the regulated variable

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13
Q

what is the integrating center

A

evaluates all inputs and sends instructions
(often neuron or endocrine cells)

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14
Q

what is the target/effector

A

performs the physiological response

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15
Q

what is feedforward

A

occurs in anticipation of change

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16
Q

what is feedback

A

occurs in response to change

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17
Q

what are the two types of feedback

A

negative and positive

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18
Q

what is negative feedback

A

restores normal value/homeostasis

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19
Q

what is positive feedback

A

enhances change (ex. childbirth)

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20
Q

what is homeostatic dysregulation

A

body cannot maintain homeostasis

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21
Q

what can homeostatic dysregulation cause

A

dysfunction, disease, death

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22
Q

what are the three types of biological work

A

chemical
mechanical
transport

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23
Q

what is chemical work

A

making/breaking bonds

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24
Q

what is mechanical work

A

moving things (moving around inside of a cell)

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25
Q

what is transport work

A

moving things across membrane of cells or organelles

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26
Q

what provides the capacity to do work

A

energy

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27
Q

what are the two types of energy

A

kinetic and potential

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28
Q

what are examples of potential energy

A

chemical bonds
concentration gradients
electrical gradients

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29
Q

what are examples of kinetic energy

A

movement of molecules, cells, etc
heat

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30
Q

what are the fluid compartments of the body

A

intracellular fluid and extracellular fluid

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31
Q

what is extracellular fluid made of

A

plasma and interstitial fluid

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32
Q

what fluid compartment are all cells in direct contact with

A

extracellular fluid

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33
Q

what forms the transition between intracellular fluid and external environment

A

extracellular fluid

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34
Q

what moves freely among compartments by osmosis

A

water

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35
Q

what is different about each of the fluid compartments

A

they contain different concentrations of each solute

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36
Q

what can concentration gradients be used for

A

an energy source

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37
Q

where is the concentration of Na+ high

A

ISF and plasma

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38
Q

where is the concentration of Na+ low

A

ICF

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39
Q

where is the concentration of K+ high

A

ICF

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40
Q

where is the concentration of K+ low

A

ISF and plasma

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41
Q

where is the concentration of Cl- high

A

ISF and plasma

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42
Q

where is the concentration of Cl- low

A

ICF

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43
Q

where is the concentration of HCO3- high

A

ISF and plasma

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44
Q

where is the concentration of HCO3- low

A

ICF

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45
Q

where is the concentration of proteins high

A

ICF and plasma

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46
Q

where is the concentration of proteins low

A

ISF

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47
Q

what separates the ECF and the ICF

A

plasma membrane

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48
Q

what does selectively permeable mean in the context of the plasma membrane

A

permeable to some particles but impermeable to others

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49
Q

how something is transported is dependent on what

A

physical and energy requirements

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50
Q

what are some of the physical requirements that determine how something is transported

A

size
lipid solubility (hydrophobic/hydrophilic)

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51
Q

what is passive transport

A

flowing down the gradient from high to low

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52
Q

what is passive transport driven by

A

concentration
(charged ions are driven by electrical forces also)

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53
Q

what is active transport

A

flowing against gradient from low to high

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54
Q

what does active transport use

A

ATP (directly or indirectly)

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55
Q

what are three types of transport mechanisms

A

simple diffusion
protein-mediated diffusion
vesicular transport

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56
Q

what is simple diffusion

A

diffusion across the lipid bilayer by nonpolar molecules

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57
Q

what is protein-mediated transport

A

moves small polar molecules across bilayer

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58
Q

what is vesicular transport

A

moves large molecules across the bilayer using vesicles

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59
Q

what is Fick’s Law

A

diffusion rate is increased by:
1. increased surface area
2. increased concentration gradient
3. increased lipid solubility
4. decreased size of molecule
5. decreased diffusion distance

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60
Q

what causes increased membrane permeability

A

increased lipid solubility
decreased size of molecule
(also affected by composition of bilayer)

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61
Q

what are the two types of protein mediated transport

A

channel proteins
carriers

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62
Q

what are channel proteins used for

A

ions and water

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63
Q

what does a channel protein form

A

continuous connection between ICF and ECF

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64
Q

what are the two types of channels

A

leakage (open)
gated (regulated)

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65
Q

what are the three types of gated chanels

A

chemically gated
mechanically gated
voltage gated

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66
Q

what kind of transport do channel proteins mediate

A

passive transport (down gradient) by facilitated diffusion

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67
Q

what does the rate of passive transport depend on

A

gradient and number of channels

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68
Q

what do carrier proteins do

A

bind to molecules and change shape to carry them across the membrane

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69
Q

do carrier proteins form a continuous connection between ICF and ECF

A

no

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70
Q

which is slower: channel or carrier

A

carrier

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71
Q

which can move larger molecules: channel or carrier

A

carrier

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72
Q

which can move molecules against their gradient: channel or carrier

A

carrier

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73
Q

what are the types of carrier proteins

A

uniporter (one kind of molecule)
symporter (2 in same direction)
antiporter (2 in different direction)

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74
Q

what are cotransporters

A

symporters and antiporters

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75
Q

what is the rate of the flow through carrier proteins affected by

A

gradient and number of carriers

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76
Q

what do the transported molecules bind to in carrier proteins

A

binding sites

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77
Q

what are the three characteristics of carrier proteins

A

specificity (binds one substrate)
competition (1 molecule can block another from binding)
saturation (increased conc of solutes will saturate the carrier if too many solutes are trying to move across)

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78
Q

what is passive transport

A

facilitated diffusion (down gradient)

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79
Q

what is active transport

A

uses ATP to move something against its gradient

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80
Q

what is primary active transport

A

binds ATP directly

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81
Q

what is secondary active transport

A

uses ATP indirectly
(energy stored in a concentration gradient)

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82
Q

what transports large molecules/particles

A

vesicular transport

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83
Q

what does vesicular transport use for energy

A

ATP

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84
Q

what is endocytosis

A

cell membrane pinches off to form vesicle and the molecule is taken into the cell

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85
Q

what is exocytosis

A

vesicle fuses with cell membrane and the molecule is released out of the cell

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86
Q

what is phagocytosis

A

used to engulf large objects

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87
Q

what kind of membrane protein are aquaporins

A

channel proteins

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88
Q

why are aquaporins needed

A

because water cannot cross the lipid bilayer due to it being polar

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89
Q

how do cells regulate the rate of osmosis

A

by varying the number of aquaporins

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90
Q

which direction does water move during osmosis

A

moves across membrane toward the side with the higher solute concentration
(evens out the water concentration)

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91
Q

does osmolarity have units

A

yes

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92
Q

what is osmolarity used for

A

to compare solute concentration between two solutions

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93
Q

what does isosmotic mean

A

equal number of solute particles per L

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94
Q

what does hyperosmotic mean

A

more particles per L

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95
Q

what does hypoosmotic mean

A

fewer particles per L

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96
Q

does tonicity have units

A

no

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97
Q

what is tonicity used for

A

to predict water movement in/out of a cell

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98
Q

what does tonicity depend on

A

the concentration difference in nonpenetrating solutes across the cell membrane

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99
Q

assuming nonpenetrating solutes, if the surrounding solution is hyperosmotic to the cell, what is the solution to the cell

A

hypertonic
(water moving out of cell)

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100
Q

assuming nonpenetrating solutes, if the surrounding solution is hypoosmotic to the cell, what is the solution to the cell

A

hypotonic
(water moving into the cell)

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101
Q

what are the three steps to cell volume changing

A

tonicity –> water movement –> cell volume change

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102
Q

what is the relationship between the solution and the cell when the cell swells

A

the solution is hypotonic to the cell

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103
Q

what is the relationship between the solution and the cell when the cell shrinks

A

the solution is hypertonic to the cell

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104
Q

what is the membrane potential

A

the charge separation at the membrane

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105
Q

what is the charge of the ICF and ECF

A

electroneutral (charge separation is only at the membrane)

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106
Q

what is the Vm

A

electrical potential difference inside the cell compared to the outside

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107
Q

what do excitable cells communicate with

A

electrical signals (changes in membrane potential)

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108
Q

what are the two things that give rise to membrane potential

A

ion concentration gradients
ion permeabilities

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109
Q

which ions affect the membrane potential the most

A

the ones that move freely across the membrane

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110
Q

what is the chemical diffusion force

A

diffuse down a concentration (chemical) gradient

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111
Q

what is the electrical force

A

the force from the interaction of ionic charge with charge separation across the membrane

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112
Q

what is the chemical force of Ca

A

into the cell since the conc of Ca outside cell is higher

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113
Q

what is the electrical force of Ca

A

into the cell since the inside of the cell is negative

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114
Q

what is the chemical force of Na

A

into the cell because there is a higher conc of Na outside the cell

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115
Q

what is the electrical force of Na

A

into the cell because the inside of the cell is negative

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116
Q

what is the chemical force of K

A

out of the cell because the conc of K is higher inside the cell

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117
Q

what is the electrical force of K

A

into the cell because the inside of the cell is negative

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118
Q

what is the chemical force of Cl

A

into the cell because the conc of Cl is higher outside of the cell

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119
Q

what is the electrical force of Cl

A

out of the cell because the outside of the cell is positive

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120
Q

when will an ion species be at electrochemical equilibrium

A

when there is no net electrochemical force (no electrochemical gradient)

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121
Q

what two forces are equal and opposite

A

electrical and chemical

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122
Q

what is the equilibrium potential

A

membrane potential that results in an electrical force that exactly counterbalances the chemical force

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123
Q

what does Ex depend on

A

ions concentration gradient (across the membrane) and valence

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124
Q

what is the Ex of K

A

-90mV

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125
Q

what is the Ex of Na

A

+60mV

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126
Q

what is the Ex of Cl

A

-63mV

127
Q

what is the Ex of Ca

A

+122mV

128
Q

what is Ex

A

the ion species’s ideal state

what the ion wants the membrane potential to be so that it can be at electrochemical equilibrium

129
Q

at the resting membrane potential, what ions are at their equilibrium potential (Ex)

A

no ion species

130
Q

what does the membrane potential (Vm) arise from

A

the ions concentration gradient and the ions permeability

131
Q

what does the ions concentration gradient give us

A

the Ex (or desired Vm)

132
Q

what does an ion want to move toward: Vm or Ex

A

it wants to move the Vm toward its Ex

133
Q

what determines the rate of ion flow

A

the difference between the Vm and Ex (Vm-Ex) will act as a driving force

134
Q

what does the membrane potential result from

A

weighted contributions of the equilibrium potentials

135
Q

what calculates the weight of each ions contribution

A

the ion species’ membrane permeability

136
Q

what is permeability due to

A

leakage (open) channels

137
Q

what is Vrest (or the Vm of a resting cell)

A

-70mV

138
Q

what influences equilibrium potential

A

concentration

139
Q

what influences membrane potential

A

concentration and permeability

140
Q

why will a gated channel open or close

A

changes in an ion’s membrane permeability
changes in Vm

141
Q

which direction to ions flow to change the membrane potential (Vm)

A

toward equilibrium potential

142
Q

what happens to Vm with depolarization

A

Vm becomes more positive

143
Q

what happens to Vm with hyperpolarization

A

Vm becomes more negative

144
Q

what happens to Vm with repolarization

A

Vm returns to original value

145
Q

are changes in the membrane potential due to bulk changes in ion distributions

A

no

146
Q

what are changes in membrane potential due to

A

small changes in local charge separation at the membrane

147
Q

what changes during electrical signaling

A

permeability
(concentrations do not change)

148
Q

what are gap junctions

A

direct cytoplasmic transfer of a signal

149
Q

what are juxtacrine signals

A

direct contact between membrane molecules of 2 cells

150
Q

what is an autocrine signal

A

signal diffuses to the cell that secreted it

151
Q

what is a paracrine signal

A

signal diffuses to nearby cells

152
Q

what are the four types of local cell-to-cell communication

A

gap junctions, juxtacrine, autocrine, paracrine

153
Q

what are the two types of long-distance cell-to-cell communication

A

hormones and neurons

154
Q

what are hormones

A

secreted into blood by endocrine cells

155
Q

what are neurons

A

electrical signal that travels along the cell

156
Q

what are the three types of neurocrines (neuron secretions)

A

neurotransmitter, neurohormone, meuromodulator

157
Q

what are the two main characteristics of a neurotransmitter

A
  1. diffuse across synapse a short distance
  2. have a rapid effect
158
Q

what is the main characteristic of a neurohormone

A

secreted into the blood a long distance

159
Q

what are the main characteristics of neuromodulators

A
  1. travel short distance
  2. slower, longer lasting effects
  3. modifies the effect of neurotransmitters
160
Q

what are the two main receptor types

A

lipophilic signal molecules
lipophobic signal molecules

161
Q

what side of the cell is the binding site for a lipophilic signal molecule

A

intracellular (inside)

162
Q

what kind of response does a lipophilic receptor have

A

slow, long lasting response (gene expression)

163
Q

what side of the cell membrane is the binding site for a lipophobic membrane receptor

A

membrane receptor
-extracellular binding site where the protein spans the membrane

164
Q

what kind of response does a lipophobic receptor have

A

rapid, brief response

165
Q

which receptor type is water soluble: lipophilic or lipophobic

A

lipophobic

166
Q

what are the four types of lipophobic signal molecule

A

receptor channel
G protein coupled receptor
receptor-enzyme
integrin receptor

167
Q

which lipophobic signal molecule has the fastest response

A

receptor-channel

168
Q

which lipophobic signal molecule is the most common

A

G protein coupled receptor

169
Q

what is it called when the receptor itself is an enzyme

A

receptor-enzyme

170
Q

where do integrin receptors bind

A

extracellular matrix

171
Q

what is signal transduction

A

converting a signal from one form (extracellular) to another (intracellular)

172
Q

what does the signal molecule (ligand/1st messenger) do

A

binds to the membrane receptor

173
Q

what does the membrane receptor activate

A

intracellular signal

174
Q

what does activating the intracellular signal activate

A

the target/effector proteins

175
Q

what is produced when the target proteins are activated

A

cellular response

176
Q

what is a cascade in a signal transduction pathway

A

each activated molecule in turn activated the next molecule

177
Q

what is amplification in a signal transduction pathway

A

one ligand results in many intracellular signal molecules

178
Q

what is an amplifier enzyme in a signal transduction pathway

A

produces second messenger molecules

179
Q

what is a second messenger molecule

A

small, fast-diffusing molecule

180
Q

what does a protein kinase do

A

phosphorylate (activate or inactivate) other proteins

181
Q

what does an ion channel affect

A

Vm

182
Q

what is a GPCR made of

A

cytoplasmic tail linked to a G proteins

183
Q

what happens when a GPCR is activated

A

it exchanges GDP for GTP

184
Q

what does the GTP-bound form of a GPCR do

A

activated other proteins

185
Q

what does GTPase do in a GPCR

A

converts GTP to GDP

186
Q

is the GDP-bound form of the GPCR active or inactive

A

inactive

187
Q

in the GPCR-cAMP system, what does the activated G protein activate

A

adenylyl cyclase

188
Q

in the GPCR-cAMP system, what does adenylyl cyclase convert ATP into

A

cyclic AMP

189
Q

in the GPCR-cAMP system, what does cAMP activate

A

protein kinase A

190
Q

in the GPCR-cAMP system, what does protein kinase A do

A

phosphorylates other proteins

191
Q

what is the 2nd messenger in the GPCR-cAMP system

A

cAMP

192
Q

what is the amplifier enzyme in the GPCR-cAMP system

A

adenylyl cyclase

193
Q

what activates phospholipase C in the GPCR-phospholipase C system

A

the activated G protein

194
Q

what two things does phospholipase C convert the phospholipid into in the GPCR-phospholipase C system

A

diacylglycerol (DAG) and inositol triphosphate (IP3)

195
Q

what does DAG activate

A

protein kinase C

196
Q

where is DAG located

A

in the membrane

197
Q

what does IP3 open

A

Ca2+ channels

198
Q

where is IP3 located

A

not stuck in the membrane

199
Q

where is Ca2+ released from

A

the ER

200
Q

what are the three second messengers in the GPCR-phospholipase C system

A

Ca2+, DAG, IP3

201
Q

what is the amplifier enzyme in the GPCR-phospholipase C system

A

phospholipase C (because it produces the 2nd messenger)

202
Q

what is used in the fastest signaling pathway

A

gated ion channels

203
Q

what are the two kinds of gated ion channels

A

directly-gated channels
indirectly-gated channels

204
Q

what are the three kinds of directly-gated channels

A

chemically gated
voltage gated
mechanically gated

205
Q

what happens in indirectly gated channels

A

the ligand activated the GPCR which gates the ion channel (either directly or via another molecule)

206
Q

what 5 changes can occur with cellular response to signals

A

motor proteins
enzyme activity
exocytosis
membrane transporters / receptor proteins
gene expression

207
Q

can receptors have more than one ligand

A

yes

208
Q

can ligands have more than one receptor

A

yes

209
Q

what determines a cells response to a ligand

A

the presence/absence of a receptor for the ligand
specific signal transduction pathway is activated

210
Q

what are specific signal transduction pathways linked to

A

different receptor isoforms

211
Q

what is an endogenous ligand

A

normally produced in the body

212
Q

what is an exogenous ligand

A

from outside the body (drugs, toxins)

213
Q

what is an agonist

A

competing ligand that binds and elicits a response

214
Q

what is an antagonist

A

competing ligand that binds and elicits no response

215
Q

what does an antagonist do to receptor activity

A

it blocks it

216
Q

what is upregulation

A

increase cell response by adding receptors

217
Q

what is down regulation

A

decrease cell response by removing receptors or decreasing their binding affinity

218
Q

what are 5 ways that a signal can be terminated

A

inactivate/remove ligand
GTPase activity of G proteins
inactivate the 2nd messenger
pump calcium back into ER
protein phosphatases

219
Q

what are two ways to inactivate or remove the ligand

A

break down the ligand
reuptake of the ligand

220
Q

what breaks down the 2nd messenger cAMP

A

phosphodiesterase (PDE)

221
Q

what do protein phosphatases do

A

dephosphorylate

222
Q

what is tonic control

A

signal is always present but changes in intensity
(ex. involves one neuron that changes the signal rate)

223
Q

what is antagonistic control

A

opposing signals send parameter in opposite directions
(ex. two different neurons to speed heart rate up and slow it down)

224
Q

when does the endocrine system coordinate body functions

A

when duration is required but not speed

225
Q

what are hormones

A

signal molecules for long distance communication

226
Q

what are hormones secreted into the blood by

A

endocrine cells

227
Q

where will hormones elicit a response

A

in cells that have receptor (target cells)

228
Q

will hormones exert effects at low or high concentrations

A

low concentrations

229
Q

how do hormones stop eliciting a response

A

the signal must be terminated

230
Q

what is the half life of a hormone

A

amount of time required to reduce concentration by half

231
Q

what is the half life of a hormone due to

A

metabolism and excretion

232
Q

what are the three classifications of hormones

A

peptide
steroid
amine

233
Q

what category do the majority of hormones fall into

A

peptide hormones (ex insulin)

234
Q

what is a preprohormone

A

the initial protein in the rough ER that eventually will make a peptide hormone

235
Q

what is the preprohormone converted to

A

prohormone

236
Q

where is the prohormone transported to

A

golgi complex

237
Q

what happens to the prohormone in the golgi complex

A

conversion to active hormone and storage in a secretory vesicle

238
Q

how are peptide hormones released

A

exocytosis

239
Q

are peptide hormones water soluble

A

yes
(hydrophilic and lipophobic)

240
Q

can peptide hormones cross the lipid membrane

A

no

241
Q

do peptide hormones have a long or short half life

A

short

242
Q

what do peptide hormones bind to

A

membrane receptors (mostly GPCR)

243
Q

what do peptide hormones usually effect

A

gate ion channels
modify enzymes or transporters
(rapid, short-lived effects)

244
Q

what are steroid hormones derived from

A

cholesterol

245
Q

are steroid hormones water soluble

A

no
(hydrophobic and lipophilic)

246
Q

can steroid hormones be stored

A

not in vesicles

247
Q

how are steroid hormones synthesized

A

on demand in the smooth ER and mitochondria

248
Q

how are steroid hormones released

A

by simple diffusion
(able to cross membrane)

249
Q

what in the cell determines what hormones it can make

A

enzymes in the cell

250
Q

what are 4 examples of steroid hormones

A

cortisol, aldosterone, estrogen, testosterone

251
Q

where are steroid hormones made

A

in only a few organs
(adrenal gland, gonads)

252
Q

do steroid hormones have a longer or shorter half life compared to peptide hormones

A

longer

253
Q

what do steroid hormones carry

A

proteins

254
Q

what kind of receptor do steroid hormones use

A

cytoplasmic or nuclear
(outside nucleus)

255
Q

what kinds of effects do steroid hormones have

A

slow, longer-lasting effects
(gene expression)

256
Q

what is the law of mass action

A

there is a constant bound:unbound ratio; as the unbound hormone leaves the blood more unbinds from the protein carrier

257
Q

what are amine hormones derived from

A

tryptophan or tyrosine

258
Q

what do the characteristics (peptide or steroid like) of an amine hormone dependent on

A

solubility

259
Q

what is the tryptophan derived hormone

A

melatonin

260
Q

is melatonin lipophilic or lipophobic

A

lipophilic

261
Q

what are the two subtypes of tyrosine derived hormones

A

catecholamines and thyroid hormones

262
Q

are catecholamines lipophilic or lipophobic

A

lipophobic

263
Q

are thyroid hormones lipophilic or lipophobic

A

lipophilic

264
Q

what are the three catecholamines

A

dopamine
norepinephrine
epinephrine

265
Q

what is the difference between a paracrine signal and a hormone

A

paracrine signals have a shorter half life and do not effect long distance

266
Q

what is the basic pathway of an endocrine reflex pathway

A

stimulus –> sensor –> input –> integrating center –> output –> effector –> physiological response

267
Q

what happens in a simple endocrine pathway

A

endocrine cell directly senses stimulus, integrates, and responds by secreting hormone

268
Q

what are two examples of simple endocrine pathways

A

pancreas (insulin and glucagon)
parathyroid glands (parathyroid hormone PTH)

269
Q

what happens in a complex endocrine pathway

A

endocrine cells evaluate 3 input signals when “deciding” whether and how much insulin to secrete

270
Q

what is an example of a complex endocrine pathway

A

insulin (pancreatic endocrine cells evaluate the input signals)

271
Q

what is the pituitary gland actually composed of

A

two fused glands

272
Q

what are the two segments of the pituitary gland

A

posterior and anterior pituitary

273
Q

what is the posterior pituitary made of

A

nervous tissue (extension of hypothalamus)

274
Q

what are the two hormones that the posterior pituitary secrete

A

vasopressin and oxytocin

275
Q

what is the function of vasopressin

A

water balance in kidneys

276
Q

what is the function of oxytocin

A

uterine contractions

277
Q

what is the anterior pituitary made of

A

epithelial tissue

278
Q

what does the anterior pituitary secrete

A

6 tropic hormones

279
Q

what are the six tropic hormones that the anterior pituitary secretes

A
  1. luteinizing hormone (LH)
  2. follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)
  3. prolactin
  4. thyrotropin or thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH)
  5. growth hormone (GH)
  6. corticotropin or adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
280
Q

what are the two gonadotropin hormones

A

LH and FSH

281
Q

what is the purpose of the gonadotropin hormones

A

reproduction and metabolism

282
Q

what is the purpose of prolactin

A

milk production

283
Q

what is the purpose of TSH

A

development and metabolism

284
Q

what is the purpose of growth hormone

A

growth and metabolism

285
Q

what is the purpose of ACTH

A

stress and metabolism

286
Q

what do hypothalamic neurons secrete

A

releasing hormones (RH) that increase secretion of hormones by the anterior pituitary

287
Q

how are hypothalamic neurons connected to the anterior pituitary

A

a portal system to avoid dilution

288
Q

what releasing hormone (RH) releases LH and FSH

A

gonadotropin RH (GnRH)

289
Q

what RH inhibits the release of prolactin

A

dopamine

290
Q

what RH is used to release TSH

A

thyrotropin RH (TRH)

291
Q

what RH is used to release GH

A

growth hormone RH (GHRH)

292
Q

what RH is used to release ACTH

A

corticotropin RH (CRH)

293
Q

what are the three integrating centers of the hypothalamic-pituitary (HP) axes

A

hypothalamus
anterior pituitary
peripheral endocrine gland

294
Q

what is HPG

A

hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis

295
Q

what is the pathway to release sex hormones

A

GnRH –> LH/FSH –> sex hormones

296
Q

what is HPT

A

hypothalamic-pituitary-thyroid axis

297
Q

what is the pathway to release thyroid hormones

A

TRH –> TSH –> thyroid hormones

298
Q

what is the HPA

A

hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis

299
Q

what is the pathway to release cortisol

A

CRH –> ACTH –> cortisol

300
Q

why is cortisol essential for life

A

it prevents hypoglycemia

301
Q

what is the long loop feedback loop

A

peripheral gland secretion inhibits secretion by hypothalamus and anterior pituitary

302
Q

what is the short loop feedback loop

A

anterior pituitary secretion inhibits secretion by hypothalamus

303
Q

what kind of feedback loops are the long and short feedback loops

A

negative feedback

304
Q

what is synergism

A

the combined effect of the hormones is greater than additive

305
Q

what is permissiveness

A

the hormone has no effect by itself, but is necessary for another hormone’s full effect

306
Q

what is antagonism

A

two hormones have opposing effects

307
Q

what is hypersecretion

A

hormone excess

308
Q

what are examples of hypersecretion

A

tumors/cancer and autoimmune disease

309
Q

what is hyposecretion

A

hormone deficiency

310
Q

what are causes of hyposecretion

A

decreased synthesis or atrophy of a gland

311
Q

what is the third pattern of endocrine pathology that causes changes in receptors or 2nd messenger pathways

A

abnormal responsiveness of target tissues to the hormone

312
Q

what is primary pathology in HP axes

A

dysfunction of peripheral endocrine gland

313
Q

what is secondary pathology in HP axes

A

dysfunction of pituitary gland

314
Q

what is tertiary pathology in HP axes

A

dysfunction of hypothalamus

Physiology (5 decks)

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