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human physiology > exam 1 > Flashcards

exam 1 Flashcards

1
Q

needs of a cell

A

source of nutrients
source of oxygen
elimination of wastes
maintenance of water and ions

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2
Q

homeostasis

A

constant internal, physical, and chemical conditions
keeping values within a normal range

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3
Q

types of tissue

A

epithelial
muscular
connective
nervous

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4
Q

epithelial tissue

A

lining of organs

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5
Q

muscular tissue

A

skeletal, smooth, cardiac
specialized for contraction and movement

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6
Q

connective tissue

A

tendons and ligaments
strength inducing

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7
Q

nervous tissue

A

critical for physiological function
cell-cell communication

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8
Q

integumentary system

A

skin, hair, sweat
protection, defense, and regulation of temp

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9
Q

endocrine system

A

hormone-secreting glands
metabolism, homeostasis, etc

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10
Q

reproductive system

A

female: ovaries, etc, produce eggs
male: testes, etc, produce sperm

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11
Q

circulatory system

A

heart, blood vessels, blood
movement of blood through body

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12
Q

respiratory system

A

nasal passages, trachea, lungs
establish air route and oxygen regulation

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13
Q

urinary system

A

kidneys, ureters, bladder
filter blood, regulate plasma, remove waste in urine

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14
Q

musculoskeletal system

A

bone, skeletal muscle, cartilage
movement, support, production of blood cells

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15
Q

digestive system

A

mouth, stomach, liver, intestine
breakdown food matter to absorb nutrients

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16
Q

percent of fluids in body

A

60%

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17
Q

percent of solids in body

A

40%

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18
Q

intracellular vs extracellular fluid makeup

A

2/3 intracellular
1/3 extracellular

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19
Q

makeup of extracellular fluid

A

75% interstitial fluid (Fluid outside cells)
25% plasma

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20
Q

diffusion

A

net movement of molecules from high concentration to low concentration (Down concentration gradient)
- no energy required (passive)
- everything is always moving, even in equilibrium!

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21
Q

what influences diffusion

A
  • temperature
  • mass of molecule (smaller, moves faster)
  • surface area (large SA, diffusion occurs rapidly)
  • medium (more rapid in gas)
    medium doesn’t change in our body because it occurs between interstitial fluid and extracellular fluid
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22
Q

fick’s first law

A

rate of diffusion is proportional to surface area and the difference in concentration (magnitude of concentration gradient)

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23
Q

space and diffusion

A
  • distance molecule travels to destination
  • as distance increases, time increases by a factor of 10
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24
Q

membrane permeability

A

proportional to lipid solubility/molecular size

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25
Q

ion channels

A
  • made of a protein/group of proteins
  • selective for specific ions or group of ions (based on charge/size)
  • ions is still simple diffusion
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26
Q

non-regulated protein channels

A

always open, called leak channels
responsible for charge differences across membranes

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27
Q

voltage gated channels

A

channels regulated by electrical charge across membrane
open/close depending on membrane potential

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28
Q

ligand gated channel

A

regulated by presence of certain chemicals that can bind to channel
ex/ neurotransmitter

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29
Q

mechanosensitive channel

A

regulated to stretch of membrane
ex/ touch receptors

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30
Q

mediated transport

A

uses a carrier protein which doesn’t have to have access to both inter and extra space at the same time

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31
Q

what affects rate of mediated transport

A
  • relative affinity (how tight molecule and transport are)
  • how many transporters
  • how fast transporters work
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32
Q

diffusion vs mediated transport

A

mediated transport has transport maximum
will reach a point where all carrier proteins are working

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33
Q

types of mediated transport

A
  • facilitated diffusion
  • primary active transport (ATP)
  • secondary active transport (conc. gradient)
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34
Q

primary active transport

A

uses energy directly derived from cleavage of ATP to drive conformational change in transport protein, which results transport of ion
- can move ions against concentration gradient

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35
Q

sodium potassium pump direction

A

antiport
(opposite direction)

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36
Q

calcium pump direction

A

uniport
(only one thing moving)

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37
Q

hydrogen pump direction

A

uniport
(only one thing moving)

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38
Q

hydrogen potassium pump

A

antiport
(opposite direction)

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39
Q

sodium potassium pump

A

each cycle:
- uses one ATP
- 3 Na+ are transported out of cell
- 2 K+ are transported into cell
asymmetrical pump –> contributes to making inside cell negative
type of primary active transport

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40
Q

secondary active transport

A

uses energy in a concentration gradient, typically from sodium, to drive the transport of another molecule
- sodium potassium pump creates ion gradient
- sodium glucose symport transporter transports glucose from ECF
- releases glucose into cytoplasm

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41
Q

vesicle mediated transport

A

exocytosis: vesicular membrane fuses with the cell membrane, then the contents of vesicle are released into ECF
endocytosis: cell membrane engulfs ECF, and then that section of plasma membrane pinches off into cell

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42
Q

osmosis

A

diffusion of water down its own concentration gradient due to aquaporins (water channel)

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43
Q

normal cell concentration

A

300 mOsm intracellular fluid

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44
Q

hypertonic solution

A

cell shrinks

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45
Q

hypotonic solution

A

cell swells

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46
Q

isotonic solution

A

no change in cell volume

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47
Q

apical membrane and basolateral membrane

A

two poles of cell
apical: microvilli and faces lumen
basolateral: faces ECF

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48
Q

absorption vs secretion in membrane

A

absorption: transport from lumen to ECF
secretion: transport from ECF to lumen

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49
Q

transcellular route

A

transported across cells

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50
Q

paracellular route

A

transported across the tight junctions between cells

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51
Q

transporters on apical and basolateral membranes

A

asymmetric localization of transporters allows for transcellular transport of solutes

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52
Q

allostasis

A

stability of optimal function through change
- the process by which the body responds to stressors in order to regain homeostasis

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53
Q

types of homeostatic control systms

A

negative feedback: something changes, mechanism changes it back
feed forward: body is anticipating that change will happen and implements mechanism before it happens

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54
Q

negative feedback system

A

works around an error signal to approximate the set point
1. imposed change (shift outside homeostasis range)
2. sensor gives signal to evaluator
3. effector makes it return to normal

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55
Q

feedforward control

A

not positive feedback!
1. stimulus
2. evaluation of expected change
3. effector compensates for change before it occurs

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56
Q

positive feedback system

A

non homeostatic! but can contribute to homeostatic systems
response reinforces stimulus, sending variable farther from set point
changes in same direction, increases stimulus
ex/ birth of baby

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57
Q

intercellular communication

A

electrical signaling: 2 cells connected by ion channels
chemical signaling: contact, local, long distance

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58
Q

paracrine signaling

A

local
secretory cell releases molecule, target cell releases receptor
diffusion from point source

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59
Q

autocrine signaling

A

secretory cell and target cell are same

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60
Q

cytokine signaling

A

secretory cell and target cell release cytokine into blood vessel
combination of paracrine/endocrine signaling

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61
Q

neurotransmitter signaling

A

local
secretory cell (Neuron) releases signaling molecule down axon to terminal, doesn’t have to travel far
only travels between synapse (space between)

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62
Q

hormone (endocrine) signaling

A

long distance
secretory cell releases hormone which diffuses into blood cell and distributed to entire body in circulatory system
but only has effect on the cells that release the receptor

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63
Q

neurohormone signaling

A

long distance
neurohormone released from neuron (not cell)
travels along blood vessel to target cell

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64
Q

what to consider about chemically mediated intercellular communication

A
  • nature of messenger molecule
  • if its diffused or travels through blood circulation
  • how is receiving cell influenced by messenger
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65
Q

receptors

A

proteins that bind to messenger molecule and the interaction between messenger molecule and receptor protein elicits a response

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66
Q

antagonist receptor

A

competes with ligand for binding to receptor but doesn’t have signal, just blocks

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67
Q

agonist receptor

A

mimics cell’s signaling receptor
binds to receptor and triggers cell’s response

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68
Q

down regulation and receptor

A

decrease in total number of receptor cells

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69
Q

up regulation and receptor

A

increase in total number of target receptor

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70
Q

increased sensitivity and receptor

A

increased responsiveness of a target cell to a messenger
- may result from up regulation

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71
Q

lipid soluble messengers

A

act to alter transcription of particular genes or activity of specific enzymes
plasma membrane receptors
- can be ion channels
- can be enzymes
- can be activate g-proteins
can diffuse into cells and interact with intracellular receptors

72
Q

lipophopbic signaling molecules

A

cannot diffuse into cells so must interact with receptors in the membrane

73
Q

calcium as second messenger

A
  • binds to calmodulin, with calcium-calmodulin complex then activating a variety of cellular enzymes
  • binds to other calcium-binding intermediary protein
  • binds to proteins to produce a direct response
74
Q

g-protein coupled receptors
(metabotropic)

A
  • binding of an agonist (First messenger) to receptor –> causes dissociation of g-protein complex
  • one of the g-protein components is free to diffuse away and interact with another protein
75
Q

signal amplification by enzyme cascades

A
  1. signal molecule binds to g protein receptor, activates g-protein
  2. g protein turns on adenylyl cyclase (amplifier enzyme)
  3. adenylyl cyclase converts ATP to cyclic AMP
  4. cAMP activaates protein kinase A
  5. protein kinase A phosphorylates other proteins, leads to cellular response
76
Q

endocrine vs exocrine gland

A

endocrine: secretes hormones into interstitial fluid (Ductless)
exocrine: secretes molecules into lumen on organ through duct

77
Q

endocrine vs neural

A

neural: local, fast, precise, interact with external environment
endocrine: slow, long, control for internal organs

78
Q

regulatory aspects of endocrine system (6)

A
  1. regulation of metabolism, ions, H2O
  2. response to stress
  3. smooth, sequential growth/development
  4. reproduction
  5. maintenance of blood cells
  6. integration with autonomic nervous system
79
Q

hypothalamus hormones

A

neuron
tropic hormones (P)
release or inhibit pituitary hormones

80
Q

posterior pituitary hormones

A

oxytocin, vasopressin

81
Q

anterior pituitary (G) hormones

A

prolactin, growth hormone
corticotropin, thyrotropin

82
Q

thyroid gland hormones

A

triiodythyronine and thryoxine
calcitonin

83
Q

heart hormones

A

atrial natriuretic peptide
target kidneys, increases sodium excretion

84
Q

stomach and small intestine hormones

A

gaestrin, cholecystokinin, secretin
GI tract and ancreas, assist digestion and absorption of nutrients

85
Q

pancreas hormones

A

insulin, glucagon, somatostatin, pancreatic polypeptide

86
Q

adrenal cortex hormones

A

aldosterone: kidney, sodium-potassium homeostasis
cortisol, androgens: many tissues, stress response

87
Q

adrenal medulla hormones

A

epinephrine, norepinephrine
- fight or flight response

88
Q

testes hormones

A

androgens: manu tissue, sperm production
inhibin: anterior pituitary: inhibits FSH secretion

89
Q

ovaries hormones

A

estrogen, progesterone: manu tissue, egg production
inhibin: anterior pituitary, inhibits FSH secretion
relaxin: pregnancy, uterine muscle, relaxes muscle

90
Q

peptide hormones
- synthesis and storage
- release from parent cell
- transport in blood
- half life
- location of receptor
- response to receptor-ligand binding
- general target response
- examples

A
  • made in advance and stores in vesicles
  • released by exocytosis
  • dissolved in plasma
  • short half life
  • receptor in cell membrane
  • when ligand binds to receptor, activation of second messenger
  • targets modification of existing proteins
  • ex: insulin, parathyroid, hormone
91
Q

steroid hormones
- synthesis and storage
- release from parent cell
- transport in blood
- half life
- location of receptor
- response to receptor-ligand binding
- general target response
- examples

A

lipid soluble
- synthesized on demand
- simple diffusion
- bound to carrier proteins
- long
- cytoplasm or nucleus
- activation of genes for transcription and translation
- induction of new protein synthesis
- estrogen, cortisol

92
Q

catecholamines
- synthesis and storage
- release from parent cell
- transport in blood
- half life
- location of receptor
- response to receptor-ligand binding
- general target response
- examples

A

amine hormone
- made in advance and stored
- exocytosis
- dissolved in plasma
- short
- cell membrane
- activation of second messenger systems
- modification of existing proteins
- epinephrine, norepinephrine

93
Q

thyroid hormones
- synthesis and storage
- release from parent cell
- transport in blood
- half life
- location of receptor
- response to receptor-ligand binding
- general target response
- examples

A

amine hormone
- made in advanced and stored
- simple diffusion
- bound to carrier proteins
- long
- nucleus
- activation of genes for transcription and translation
- induction of new protein synthesis
- thryoxine

94
Q

protein/polypeptide hormone synthesis and release

A
  1. protein synthesis gives rise to preprohormone –> goes into ER
  2. enzyme chops off part of sequence, creates prohormone
  3. prohormone passed from ER through golgi
  4. prohormone put into vesicle that buds off golgi
  5. vesicle has prohormone and enzymes that complete and cleave prohormone into final hormone
  6. vesicle fuses with membrane and allows hormone to be released into extracellular space
95
Q

peptide hormones

A
  • cannot enter target cells and must combine with membrane receptors that initiate transduction processes
  • most are g-protein
  • exception: insulin
96
Q

steroid hormone structure and synthesis

A
  • biosynthetic precursor is cholesterol
  • small differences in steroid structure can have big impact on function
97
Q

types of steroid hormones

A
  • mineralocorticoids: aldosterone
  • glucocorticoids: cortisol
  • sex steroids: estradiol, testosterone
98
Q

actions of steroid hormones

A
  1. hydrophobic steroids are bound to plasma protein carriers
  2. steroid hormone receptors are in cytoplasm or nucleus
  3. receptor hormone complex binds to DNA and activates/represses genes
  4. activated genes create new mRNA that moves back to cytoplasm
  5. translation produces new proteins for cell processes
  • steroid cant store in vesicle because its lipid soluble, so it has to be synthesized on demand
99
Q

tyrosine amine hormone

A

parent amino acid for catecholamines and thyroid hormones
- two types: catecholamines and thyroid hormone
- only thing in common is styrosine

100
Q

catecholamines

A

made by modifying side groups of tyrosine
- ex: dopamine, norepinephrine, epinephrine

101
Q

thyroid hormones

A

synthesized from 2 tyrosine and iodine atoms
- thyroxine and triiodothyrone

102
Q

how are hormones released

A
  • catecholamines: exocytosis from vesicles
  • peptides: exocytosis from vesicles
  • thyroid hormones: cleavage from thyroglobulin
  • steroids: secreted as synthesized
103
Q

what determines wether a cell responds

A
  • whether or not it has a receptor
  • whether the messenger is present in sufficient concentration to influence a sufficient number of receptors to elicit a response
104
Q

what influences the level of hormone

A

largely secretion rate
clearance

105
Q

what influences release of hormone

A

depends on specific hormone but
- changes in concentration of ECF ion
- changes in concentration of ECF organics
- neurotransmitter
- other hormone
- stretch

106
Q

control of secretion of hormones

A
  • negative feedback
  • low plasma calcium detected, released paratyhroid hormone into blood, works on kidney, increases calcium
107
Q

hypothalamus and pituitary

A
  • hypothalamus is controlling brain structure, gives rise to tissue of posterior pituitary
    anterior pituitary: true endocrine gland of epithelial origin
    infundibulum: stalk that connects pituitary to brain
108
Q

neurons in hypothalamus

A

paraventricular nucleus
supraoptic nucleus
- release vasopressin and oxytocin

109
Q

PRH hormone

A

positive for prolactin
goes to breasts

110
Q

PIH hromone

A

(dopamine)
negative for prolactin
goes to breasts

111
Q

TRH hormone

A

positive for TSH
goes to thyroid gland, which releases TH

112
Q

CRH hormone

A

positive for ACTH
goes to adrenal cortex, which releases cortisol

113
Q

GHRH hormone

A

positive for GH
goes to liver, which releases insulin-like growth factors
or goes to cells throughout body

114
Q

GHIH

A

somatostatin
negative for GH
goes to liver, which releases insulin-like growth factors
or goes to cells throughout body

115
Q

GnRH

A

positive for endocrine cells like LH and FSH
goes to gonads
male releases androgens
female releases estrogen, progesterone

116
Q

control pathway for cortisol secretion

A
  • cortisol is secreted by adrenal cortex
    uses negative feedback
117
Q

structure of neuron

A
  • dendrites
  • cell body
  • initial segment
  • axon
  • axon terminals
118
Q

synapse

A

region where an axon terminal communicates with its postsynaptic target cell

119
Q

myelin

A
  • sheets surrounding axons
  • unmyelinated segments form gaps called nodes of ranvier
  • each individual glial cell lays myelin to insulate axons
120
Q

CNS vs PNS

A

CNS: oligodendrocytes, myelinates several parts of several CNS axons
PNS: schwann cells, myelinates one part of one PNS axon

121
Q

resting membrane potenitial

A

equilibrium potentials of permeant ions
- at rest: there is no net flow of ions, so membrane potential is constant

122
Q

membrane potential for Na and K

A

resting membrane potential is closer to potassium because the membrane is more permeable to potassium ion than to sodium
- at rest, potassium is moving out (a lot, Due to leak channels) and sodium moving in (less)

123
Q

afferent neurons

A

arriving to brain with information about sensory stimuli

124
Q

efferent neurons

A

exit brain with information about motor

125
Q

nervous system organizaation

A

central spinal cord system: brain and spinal cord
peripheral nervous system: everything else

126
Q

afferent division

A

in peripheral nervous system
contains sensory and visceral stimuli and goes into brain

127
Q

efferent division

A

in peripheral nervous system
- somatic nervous system: motor nerons to skeletal muscles
- autonomic nervous system: sympathetic/parasympathetic

128
Q

somatic senses

A

afferent divison
touch, temperature, prain, joints

129
Q

special senses

A

afferent division
vision, hearing, taste, smell

130
Q

visceral senses

A

afferent division
blood pressure, ph, osmolarity, etc

131
Q

dorsal of spine

A

back side
sensory info enters spinal cord
dorsal root ganglion (all cell bodies of afferent neurons entering spinal cord)

132
Q

venral of spine

A

front side
motor info exits spinal cord

133
Q

spinal cord division

A
  • cervical cord
  • thoracic cord
  • lumbar cord
  • sacral cord
134
Q

cauda equina

A

spinal nerves extend past spinal cord
- lumbar nerves, sacral nerves, coccygeal nerves

135
Q

cranial nerves

A
  • 10th (vagas) nerve is biggest
  • involved in parasympathetic nervous system
  • extend out from ventral (bottom) of brain
136
Q

sulci

A

grooves of brain

137
Q

fissures

A

deep sulci/grooves

138
Q

gyri

A

rounded region between sulci

139
Q

blood brain barrier

A
  • protects brain from substances in blood
  • have tight junctions between capillary endothelial cells in brain (no pores)
  • surrounded by astrocytes (glial cells) increase protection
140
Q

ventricle

A

spaces within brain that are fluid filled and don’t have tissue

141
Q

circumventricular organs

A

part of brain not protected by blood brain barrier

142
Q

parasympathetic

A

rest and digest

143
Q

sympathetic

A

flight or fight

144
Q

ganglion in parasympathetic system

A
  • preganglionic neurons travel far
  • postganglionic neurons ravel short
145
Q

ganglion sympathetic system

A
  • preganglionic neurons travel short
  • postganglionic neurons travel far
146
Q

somatic nervous system neuron signal

A
  • efferent only, has one neuron
  • neuron in skeletal muscle releases acetylcholine
  • skeletal muscle has nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (ligand gated)
147
Q

parasympathetic division neuron chain

A
  • autonomic system
  • preganglionic neuron in skeletal muscle release acetylcholine
  • postganglionic neuron has receptor, then releases acetylcholine
  • muscle has m-achr (g-protein)
148
Q

sympathetic division neuron chain

A
  • autonomic system
  • preganglionic neuron in skeletal muscle release acetylcholine
  • postganglionic neuron either: releases norepinephrine into muscle
  • or epinephrine into blood (from adrenal medullla)
149
Q

arterioles receptors

A

alpha-adrenergic receptor, causes them to constrict

150
Q

arterioles receptors

A

alpha-adrenergic receptor, causes them to constrict

151
Q

heart receptors

A

beta1-adrenergic receptor, increase rate

152
Q

graded potentials

A
  • decremental: decrease when farteher away
  • can be depolarizing or hyperpolarizing
153
Q

action potential

A

large depolariziation

154
Q

absolute refractory period

A

occurs when voltage gated sodium channels are inactivated
during this time, it is impossible to generate antoher action potential, no matter how much stimulation is applied

155
Q

relative refractory period

A

time after an action potential when enough channels have recovered from inactivation, but potassium flux is still active

156
Q

hypothalamus

A

homeostasis, stress responses, endocrine control

157
Q

thalamus

A

integrating region and relay site for sensory and motor information

158
Q

cerebellum

A

coordination of movement

159
Q

basal ganglia

A

movement, coordination

160
Q

limbic regions

A

grouping of cortical and subcortical structures, involved with emotional state

161
Q

parts of limbic region

A
  • hippocampus: learning, memory
  • amygdala: emotion
    both deep in temporal lobe
162
Q

cerebral cortex

A

sensory, motor control, integration of information

163
Q

medulla oblongta

A

control of blood pressure, breathing, GI function

164
Q

pons

A

relay between cerebellum and cerebrum (control of movement), coordination of breathing

165
Q

pons and medulla

A

regulation of arousal and sleep, muscle tone, pain

166
Q

peripheral system parts

A

somatics and autonomic
- autonomic is parasympathetics and sympathetic
- somatic is just motor neurons to skeletal muscle

167
Q

postsynaptic poetential

A

graded potential in postsynaptic membrane of neuron

168
Q

depolarizing

A

excitatory post synaptic potential (EPSP)

169
Q

hyperpolarizing

A

inhibitory post synaptic potential (IPSP)

170
Q

phases of action potential

A
  1. depolarization from graded potential is so big, it causes Na+ voltage-gated channel to open (at axon hilcock)
  2. Na+channel becomes blocked–> K+ channels open which repolarizes membrane (absolute refractory period) another action potential cant be generated
  3. overshoots, becomes hyperpolarized (relative refractory period)
  4. action potential travels down cell body to nerve terminal
171
Q

what happens at nerve terminal with axction potential?

A

action potential converted from electrical to chemical signal
- voltage gated Ca2+ channels open, increase Ca+ concentration causes release of neurotransmitter through exocytosis, diffuse across synaptic cleft to receptor

172
Q

infundibulum

A

stalk that connects pituitary to brain

173
Q

anterior pituitary

A

true endocrine gland of epithelial origin

174
Q

posterior pituitary

A

extension of neural tissue from hypothalamus

175
Q

portal circulations and importance

A
  • blood flow between 2 capillary beds
  • important for circulation between hypothalamus and anterior pituitary

human physiology (2 decks)

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