Exam 1 Flashcards
Define homeostasis
The balance of the bodies internal environment, due to the functions of the regulatory process
What are the four ways our cells communicate throughout the body?
- Direct Communication
- Paracrine Communication
- Endocrine Communication
- Synaptic Communication
Define; Direct Communication. How limited is it?
Communication between two cells of the same type through chemicals
It is the most limited; info shared between two like cells
Where does communication of cells occur during direct communication?
Gap Junctions
Define: Gap Junctions
Regions between two cells that permit the movement of ions, solutes or lipid soluble materials from one cell to the other
What kind of cells use gap junctions to communicate?
Epithelial and cardiac cells
Define: Paracrine Communication. How limited is it?
Communication to neighboring cells within the same tissue, through information in the form of cellular chemicals which gets released into surrounding extracellular fluid.
Semi limited; info travels within same tissue
When does paracrine communication mainly occur?
During inflammation with prostaglandins
Define: Endocrine Communication. How limited is it?
Cells release chemical hormones directly into he bloodstream which traces throughout the body
Least limited; info travels throughout body
Define: Target Cells
Specialized cells that hormones attach to by the cell’s receptors, they essentially receive the information, read it and later react as needed.
*What do hormones do?
Can alter metabolism of multiple tissues or entire organs
How long do effects of hormones last?
Up to a few days
When are observational effects of hormones at their greatest?
During pregnancy & puberty
*Define: Synaptic Communication. How limited is it?
Communication to adjacent neurons or muscle cells that have specific receptors for the neurotransmitter
Limited communication; due to specific receptors necessary
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What is a major characteristic of communication within the endocrine system that is unlike other systems?
Chemicals (aka hormones) are released directly into the bloodstream
How are the endocrine glands different from exocrine glands?
Exocrine glands secrete info into ducts where as endocrine glands secrete info into the bloodstream
Hormones are secreted into ______, where as paracrine factors are secreted into _____.
Bloodstream/ Interstitial (extracellular) fluid
What parts of the body produce hormones?
Brain, Pancreas, Reproductive Organs & Thyroid
What are the three classes of hormones? & What are they made of?
- Amino Acid Derivatives –> Proteins
- Peptide Hormones –> Proteins
- Lipid Derivaties –> Lipids
What type of solute are lipids vs proteins?
Lipids = NOT water soluble Proteins = water soluble
What are Amino Acid Derivatives
Small molecules that are structurally related to amino acids
_____ are the building blocks of proteins
Amino Acids
What are peptide hormones?
Chains of amino acids
What are the two groups of peptide hormones?
Glycoproteins & other than glycoproteins
What are the two groups of lipid derivatives. Describe them.
- Eicosaniods: small molecules with a five-carbon ring at one end
- Steroid Hormones: Lipids derived from cholesterol
What are two examples of Eicosanoids? What do they do? How are they released?
- Leukotrienes (Leuko means white): Released by WBCs to coordinate a response to injury or disease
- Prostaglandins: Produced in most issues of the body. Secreted by injured cells or tissue causing more blood flow (swelling).
Steroid hormones include _____ hormones.
Sex
Androgen, Estrogen, and Progestins are __________.
Sex hormones
Androgens are secreted by ________, creating ________. Where as Estrogens & progestins are secreted by _______, creating _______ & _______.
Testes; testosterone
Ovaries; estrogen & progesterone
What happens once hormones are released into the blood stream?
They circulate freely or bind to a special carrier protein
Usually how long do hormones stay in the bloodstream?
Less than one hour
How are hormones removed from the bloodstream?
Two ways:
1. They bind to receptor proteins of target cells in the liver or kidney
or
2.They’re broken down by enzymes in the blood plasma or interstitial fluid
What carries hormones to their destination?
Special carrier proteins
What endocrine glands are int he brain?
Hypothalamus, Pineal Gland, Pituitary Gland
What endocrine glands are in the neck?
Thyroid & Parathyroid glands
What endocrine glands are in the thoracic cavity
The heart and thymus
What endocrine glands are in the abdominal pelvis cavities
Kidney, adrenal glands, digestive track, pancreas, gonads, adapts tissue
How long can hormones stay in circulation once bonded to special carrier proteins?
Months (but not likely)
Where are receptors for target cells located?
- On the plasma membrane (Extracellular Receptors)
2. Within the cytoplasm (Intracellular Receptors)
Extracellular Receptors are accessible to ______. Where as Intracellular Receptors are accessible to ________. Why is this?
Water-soluble hormones, bc they cannot pass through a plasma membrane
Lipid-soluble hormones, bc they can pass through the the plasma membrane
Which receptors, extracellular or intracellular, react faster on the cell? Why?
Intracellular Receptors, because since they’re lipid-soluble they pass through the cell membrane fast & easy!
T or F: Hormones binding to intracellular receptors can directly affect activities inside the cell
False! There are first & second messengers needed to share the information brought in by the hormone
What are the three types of second messengers? What are they derivatives of?
- Cyclic-AMP (cAMP): Derivative of ATP
- Cyclic-GMP (cGMP): Derivative of GTP
- Calcium ions
What is the role of G protein?
It is the link between the first and second messenger
What happens when G protein is activated?
- Activates adenylate cyclase, converts ATP to celiac-AMP
- Cylic-AMP then activates kinase
- Kinase accelerate metabolic activity of target cell by opening ion channels, activating enzymes
What deactivates the second messenger to prevent the cell from burning out?
Phosphodiesterase (PDE)
What does protein kinase c (PKC) do?
Opens up the calcium ion channels allowing extracellular calcium ions to enter the cell (Gatekeeper)
What are endocrine reflexes mainly for?
Control hormone secretion of heart, pancreas, parathyroid glands and digestive tract to maintain homeostasis
What does the hypothalamus secrete?
Regulatory hormones, epinephrin & norepinephrine
What are regulatory hormones? What secretes them?
Special hormones that control endocrine cells in the adenohypophysis (anterior lobe) of the pituitary gland
Secreted by hypothalamus
What are three jobs of the hypothalamus?
- Secrete regulatory hormones to control activity of pituitary gland
- Produce ADH and Oxytocin
- Secretes epinephrin and norepinephrine causing adrenalin; control of sympathetic output of adrenal medulla
Which endocrine organ synthesizes and transports hormones along axons within the infundibulum of the pituitary gland, to the posterior lobe where its released into the bloodstream?
hypothalamus
What is the pituitary gland
A small, oval endocrine gland
Contains two parts.
Name the lobes of the pituitary gland. How are they are distinctly different? How many peptide hormones do they each secrete?
Adenohypophysis- anterior lobe of pituitary gland. This part is larger and darker. Secretes 7 peptide hormones
Neurohypophysis- Posterior lobe of pituitary gland. This part is smaller and lighter stained. Secretes 2 peptide hormones
What separates the anterior pituitary gland from the posterior?
The Pars Intermedia
What is the Hypophyseal Portal System?
A capillary network that radiates through the adenohypophysis (anterior pituitary) which gives every endocrine cell immediate access to the circulatory system
What is the name of the capillaries in the Hypophyseal Portal System?
Fenestrated Capillaries
What does fenestrated mean? Why is it important?
Means large pores, this allows hormones to easily pass through to the blood system
List the hormones, that are secreted from the Adenohypophysis (anterior pituitary), their abbreviations, what they’re secreted by and their jobs….. go!
- Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone (TSH)
Job: Stimulates thyroid gland to transport iodine ions which then bind together to create T3 (Thyroxine) or T4 (Triiodothyronine)
Secreted by: Thyroid Gland - Adrenocorticotroptic Hormone (ACTH)
Job: Stimulates the adrenal cortex to release glucorticoids (a steroid hormone that increases glucose levels in the body)
Secreted by: Adrenal Glands - Follicle- Stimulating Hormone (FSH)
Job: Promotes growth of follicles in females & males. In combo with LH it stimulates secretion of estrogen in females. It’ll also stimulate nurse cells in males which help care for the development of sperm cells
Secreted by: Ovaries & Testes - Luteinizing Hormone (LH)
Job: induces ovulation & promotes secretion of estrogen & progestins for females. For males it stimulates product of sex hormones (androgens)
Secreted by: Ovaries & Testes - Prolactin (PRL)
Job: Stimulates mammary gland development & milk production during & after pregnancy
Secreted by: ? - Growth Hormone (GH)
Job: Stimulates cell growth in size and # by accelerating the rate of protein synthesis
Secreted by: ? - Melanocyte Stimulating Hormone (MSH)
Job: Stimulates the melanocytes of the skin, increasing production of melanin
Secreted by: ?
List the hormones secreted by the Neurohypophysis (posterior pituitary), their abbreviations, jobs and
- Antidiure Hormone (ADH)
Job: Decrease the amount of water lost in the kidneys in order to increase the blood pressure (Hold of water)
Secreted by:
2.Oxytocin (OXT)
Job:
Females: Targets smooth muscle contractions (helps during labor & delivery)
Males: Ejaculation of sperm & gland secretion into the urethra
Secreted by: uterus and nipples for females and urethra for men
What trigger the release of ADH?
Released due to increase or decrease in blood volume/pressure
Diabetes is a condition due to a lack of ________. Causing ______ loss. Resulting in what prominent 4 side effects?
Antidiure Hormone (ADH)
Water loss
Causes: thirst, dehydration, electrolyte imbalance, & death
Too much water loss leading to dehydration is called
Polyuria
What Endocrine Gland synthesizes a protein called thyroglobulin?
The Thyroid Gland
Thyroglobulin can attach to ___ or ____ iodine ions.
3 or 4
______ is formed when Thyroglobulin attaches to 3 iodide ions. Where as ______ is formed when Thyroglobulin attaches to 4 iodide ions
3 iodine ions + thyroglobulin = triiodothyronine (T3)
4 iodine ions + thyroglobulin = thyroxine (T4)
Where do iodine ions come from?
Ingested food
What is the function of thyroid hormones? What does this help with?
Increases ATP production leading to more energy & metabolic rate of cells;
Helps skeletal, muscular and nervous system development in growing children
A deficiency of triiodothyronine (T3), thyroxine (T4) or Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone (TSH) is called _______. The symptoms are _____, ______, & ______ sensitivity.
Hyperthyroidism (Aka Myxedema)
eyes bulge, swollen legs, heat sensitivity
What is the purpose of parafollicular cells (c-cells)?
To secrete hormone calcitonin (CT) which decreases calcium ion concentrations in the body and deposits them to the bone
What are the characteristics and location of Adrenal Glands?
Pyramid-shaped glands located on the superior surface of the kidneys
What is a major characteristic of endocrine glands?
They’re all vascular; contain vessels
What are the three major layers of the Adrenal Gland?
Capsule
Cortex
Medulla
How many parts are in the adrenal cortex?
3
What are the names and attributes of the three parts of the adrenal cortex? What do they each produce?
- Zona Glomerulosa:
- Outer most layer
- Produces mineralocorticoids
- Zona Fasciculata:
- Middle layer
- Produces steroid hormones; glucocorticoids
- Zona Reticularis
- Deepest layer
- Produces small amounts of androgens
What happens to androgens once they’re put into the blood stream?
They turn into estrogen
What are mineralocorticoids?
Hormones that affect the electrolyte composition of the bodies fluids
Mineralocorticoid is produced by Zona ______, the _____ layer of the adrenal gland? What is the main mineralocorticoid? What does it do?
Zona Glomerulosa, the outer most layer
Aldosterone:
- Stimulates the conservation of sodium ions
- Eliminates potassium ions at the kidney, pancreas, sweat glands, & salivary glands
- Helps with reabsorption of sodium
Glucocorticoid is produce by Zona _____, the ____ layer of the adrenal gland. What is the main glucocorticoid? What does it do? What is broken down in this process
Zona Fasciculata, middle layer
Cortisol:
- Increases glucose in the blood
- Releases fatty acids & protein into the blood for immediate energy cells by BREAKING DOWN ADIPOS TISSUE
What is needed to produce ATP?
Glucose
When are glucocorticoids released?
During stress
______ syndrom causes striae, muscle weakness, hairloss, buffalo hump, moon face, and hirsutism.
Cushing Syndrome
How is Cushing syndrome caused? What unnatural thing can cause this? What does this lead to in the pituitary gland?
When extra ACTH is secreted by the pituitary gland, glucocorticoid is released (essentially excess cortisol)
Use of synthetic glucocorticoids can cause this as well
Leads to a tumor on the pituitary gland
What are the affects of the Zona Reticularis on both men and women? Which of the two sex does it effect the most?
Men & Women: Stimulates pubic hair growth in adolescences
Women only: Promotes muscle mass, blood cell formation & libido (sexual desires) support
Effects women more
What part of the Adrenal Gland contains large, round cells with preganglionic sympathetic fibers?
Adrenal Medulla
The adrenal medulla secrets _____, ___% of the time & ______, _____% of the time. Both of which are essentially _______.
Epinephrine 80% of the time
Norepinephrine 20% of the time
Adrenalin
What kind of cells are most cells in the body?
Target cells
What is the function of the Adrenal Medulla?
Increase cardiac activity, & blood pressure
Breaks down blood glucose levels
Releases lipids by adipose tissue
The Pineal Gland is apart of the _____ and contains _____ cells.
Epithalamus / pinealocytes cells
What hormones do pinealocytes releases?
Melatonin
Which cells are influenced by visual pathways? What happens if it is dark around you?
Pinealocytes cells
Causes more melatonin production = you get sleepy!
Which organ is both an exocrine & endocrine gland?
Pancreas
What does the pancreas do? Is this its exocrine or endocrine side?
Produces digestive enzymes that are sent to small intestine through a main DUCT
Exocrine side!
What does the pancreas contain? Is this its exocrine or endocrine side?
Islets
Endocrine side!
Alpha cells produce the hormone ____. Where beta cells produce _____.
Glucagon/Insulin
What is the name of the peptide hormone that is released into the bloodstream when blood-glucose levels exceed “normal levels”
Insulin
What are considered “normal” blood-glucose levels?
70- 110 mg/dl
What are some examples of cells that are insulin dependent?
Brain
Kidney
GI tract lining
RBCs
What is secreted when glucose levels fall below normal?
Glucagon
How does glucagon help the body out? How does it do this?
- Increases the amount of glucose in the blood
2. Breaks down glycogen in skeletal muscle and liver cells
Gluconeogenesis is a process that takes….
amino acids or fats, and converts them to glucose
Non carbohydrate precursors are ____
fats
What are the two types of Diabetes Mellitus?
Type one: born without, or have no, beta cells. Rely on insulin injections
Type two: Insulin receptors on the cell’s membrane are desensitized causing the glucose to stay in the blood
-Caused by bad appetite and habits
What 3 hormones are made by the kidneys?
Calcitriol, Erythopoietin & Renin
What is calcitriol?
A steroid that is secreted in response to the presence of PTH
What does calcitriol do?
- Stimulates absorption of calcium & phosphate ions in the GI tract
- Forms osteoclasts
- Helps reabsorb calcium ions in kidneys
- Supresses PTH production
What is Erythropoietin?
A peptide hormone that is released when there is low oxygen levels in the kidney tissue
What does Erythropoietin do?
Stimulates production of red blood cells in bone marrow
When is Renin released?
When there is a decrease of blood flow through the kidneys
What does Renin do?
Converts hormone angiotensnogen to angiotensin one
What is the difference between Angiotensin One and Angiotensin Two?
Angiotensin One goes to the lungs where its converted to Angiotensin Two.
Angiotensin Two stimulate secretion of aldosterone from adrenal cortex to absorb sodium & water to help increase blood pressure.
What is a similarity of both Angiotensin One and Angiotensin Two?
They both restrict salt & water loss at kidneys increasing thirst, blood pressure and blood volume
What hormone does the heart make, and how?
Natriuretic Peptide by stretching
What hormone does the heart make, and how? What is the ultimate goal of doing this?
Natriuretic Peptide by stretching
Goal: lower blood pressure and volume
Why is Natriuretic Peptide made?
To promote water and sodium ions loss at the kidneys and inhibit the secretion of aldosterone and ADH
What hormone does the thymus secrete? Why?
Thymosin Hormone
To promote development and maturation of lymphocytes (or T-cells)
What are lymphocytes (aka T-cells) responsible for?
Immune system
Gonads are ____ in the _____ that produce the two hormones _____ & _______.
Cells/ testes / androgen & testosterone
What do gonads do for men vs women?
Men:
Create nurse cells in testes that take car of sperm
Women:
Produce estrogen
Nurse cells secrete ______.
Inhibin
What is the main estrogen? What is it function?
Estradiol
Maintains post-pubescent sex characteristics including breast development, changes in body shape, affecting bones, and fat depositions
Leptin is released when? What does this help with?
We eat/ supresses our appetite
What are the three main functions of blood?
Transportation
Regulation
Protection
Blood temperature is roughly ____
100.4 F
Blood is ____ when saturated with water
Bright red
Blood pH is between ____ and ____
7.35 - 7.45
Blood is ____ % plasma and ____ % Formed elements
55% plasma
45% formed elements
Plasma is ____ % proteins, ____ % other solutes and _____ % water
7% proteins
- 5% other solutes
- 5% water
Formed elements have ___ number of platelets
400,000
Formed elements have ___ number of WBCs
5,000 - 10,000
Formed elements have ___ number of RBCs
4.9 -5.4 million
Which two formed elements do not have a nucleus?
RBCs & Platelets
____ are the name of formed element that is merely parts of cells
Platelets
Which WBCs have 3-5 lobes to their nuclei and are granular?
Neutrophil
Which (WBCs) leukocytes have a bilobed nucleus and contain deep red granules?
Eosinophils
Which (WBCs) leukocytes have deep blue granules and a hidden nucleus by these granules?
Basophils
Which (WBCs) leukocytes are very large and have a oval kidney bean shaped nucleus?
Monocytes
Which (WBCs) leukocytes have a large round nucleus with a think halo of cytoplasm?
Lymphocytes
How many cells are in the human body?
75 Trillion
What does the cardiovascular system include?
The heart, blood vessels & blood
What is the cardiovascular system’s main functions?
Delivers necessary materials (O2) to all cells in the body
What is bloods primary function?
Transportation of gasses, nutrients, hormones and metabolic wastes
What are the four functions of blood?
- Regulates bodies Ph
- Restricts fluid loss by clotting
- Immunity by caring antibodies and WBCs
- Stabilizes body temperature by absorbing excess heat and distributing it elsewhere ( When you get too cold and your fingers and toes go numb so your brain and organs stay warm)
What is bloods normal ph range?
7.35 -7.45
What is the name of the matrix in blood?
Plasma
What 3 types of formed elements make up blood? What are each of their functions?
RBC: Transports O2 around the body
WBC: Bodies main defense and immunity
Platelets: Contains enzymes for blood clotting
Hemopoiesis is?
The production of formed elements
(T or F) Platelets are cells
False! They are only cell fragments
What does whole blood consist of?
Plasma and elements ( what we see when we get cut)
What is the average temperature of whole blood?
100.4 F
Blood is ____ times more viscous than water
5 times
Venipuncture is a procedure where ______
Blood is collected for analysis from a superficial vein (drawing blood)
(T or F) Veins have thicker walls than arteries
False! Its the other way around, arteries have thicker walls than veins
What are the three major proteins found in blood plasma? What do they do?
- Albumins: Maintain water content in blood
- Globulins: has antibodies and transport globulins
- Fibrinogen: Converted to Fibrin to clot wounds
Erythropoiesis is….
The formation of RBCs in bone marrow
What makes RBC deep red in color? Why
O2, because RBC have Hemoglobin in them which are naturally sticky to oxygen and help the RBC carry it
A rouleau is a ______ of RBCs
Stack
RBCs have a life span of _____ days
120
RBC & Platelets have no ____ but WBCs do
Nucleus
Hemoglobin is made up of two _____ and two _____ of ______
2 Alpha chains & 2 beta chains of polypeptides
Heme is responsible for ______.
binding to O2
What can carry 1 billion O2 molecules at once?
Hemoglobin
_____ is the condition where Hb (hemoglobin) levels are low and decrease delivery of O2 to peripheral tissues
Anemia
What are the symptoms of Anemia?
Weakness, fatigue and confusion
How many miles does a RBC travel in the 120 days of its life?
700 miles
How long does it take for a single RBC to travel from the heart to tissue and back
Less than a min, roughly 30 seconds
What ways do RBCs die? (Use the technical term) Which way is better?
(Sudden) 1. Hemolysis: The rupture of RBCs plasma membrane in blood stream
(Overtime & Recycled) 2. Autolysis: Broken down in liver, spleen & bone marrow
_____ is a condition due to Hemolysis where hemoglobin is released into the ruin causing it to turn red or brown. The symptoms of this are renal cancer, infection, burns or malaria
Hemoglobinuria
____ is the presence of RBCs in urine due to kidney or vessel damage along urinary tract
Hematuria
____ breaks down RBCs when they’re old
WBCs
____ & _____ polypeptide chains are broken down from RBCs into _____. This is then reused by different cells.
Alpha & Beta / Amino- Acids
During the breakdown process of RBCs what is stripped from Heme? What is it then converted to?
Iron / biliverdin
_____ is an organic compound with a yellow- orange pigment ( bruises)
Bilirubin
What does bile do?
Breaks down fat we eat into smaller pieces
What causes Jaundice? What is a distinct color of this?
Blockage of bile ducts, or liver damage, causing bilirubin (aka bile) to not be absorbed and therefore released into the bloodstream. Yellow pigment
____ binds to iron removed from Heme in the breakdown of RBCs. Its job is to transform iron.
Transferrin
What in blood is toxic to the cells?
Iron
If someone has low ____ levels, you know they’re iron defiant
Ferritin
What is essential to create RBCs?
Amino acids, vitamins, iron, B12
How is B12 obtained?
Dairy & red meat
What causes Pernicious anemia?
B12 Deficiency
EPO Erythropoietin is important to the production of _____
RBCs
What is the main difference between Anti-A and Anti-B antibodies vs Anti-Rh?
Anti-RH can cross the placenta where Anti A & Anti B cant
Whit blood cells are aka ______
Leukocytes
What are the functions of WBCs?
Immunity of the body
Remove toxins, wastes & abnormal/ damaged cells
What are the two classes of WBC and there types?
Granulocytes:
-Neutrophils, Eosinophils, Basophils
Agranulocytes:
-Monocytes & Lymphocytes
If RBCs are out of blood vessels this means what?
There was an injury
The act of WBCs following chemicals that are released by pathogens is called _______.
Postive Chemotaxis
List the five types of WBCs, what percentage of WBCs they make up, some distinct characteristics of them, and their main function
Neutrophil:
- 50% of WBCs
- Has a 3-5 lobe nucleus
- Has granules
- Function: Defense enzyme! Digests broken down bacteria
Lymphocyte:
- 30% of WBCs
- Has large nucleus, almost size of cell
- Functions: Rely on these to stay healthy
Monocyte:
- 8% of WBCs
- Kidney shaped nucleus
Eosinophil:
- 2% of WBCs
- Has granules
- Bi-lobed nucleus
- Function: Attacks pathogens
Basophils:
- > 1 % of WBCs
- Many granules, cant see nucleus
- Prevents blood clotting
Phagocytosis is a means of how ____ engulf bacteria
Neutrophils
Which WBC is highly mobile & “first responder” at site of injury
Neutrophils
Basophil’s granules contain ______ & _____. What do they help with?
Histamine: causes vasodilation (dilation of blood vessels increasing blood pressure)
Heparin: Prevents blood clotting
What are the three types of lymphocytes? What do they each help with?
T cells: Helps cell immunity
B cells: Helps hormonal immunity
Natural Killer Cells: Helps immune surveillance
What are Leukopenia and Leukocytosis? What medical conditions do they cause?
Leukopenia: not enough WBCs in body -Anemic (sick all the time)
Leukocytosis: Too many WBCs in the body - cancers ( Leukemia/ infections )
____ is the production of WBCs
Leukopoiesis
Hemocytoblasts produce ____ & _____ stem cells
Myeloid & lymphoid stem cells
Platelets are ______, that help in the ____ process. They have a life span of ____ days.
Cell fragments / clotting process/ 9-12 days
Where are large amounts of platelets stored? Why there?
Spleen, for a circulatory crisis
Thrombocytopoiesis is the production of _____
Platelets
Megakaryocytes fragment into tiny pieces creating ____ # of _____.
4000/ platelets
How do platelets initiate the clotting process?
Platelets release chemicals and enzymes
A platelet plus is a _____
Temporary patch in walls of damaged area
Platelets contain ____ & _____
Actin & Myosin
What is the sensation of bleeding called?
Hemostasis
What are the 3 phases of bleeding? Briefly describe what occurs during each phase.
- Vascular Phase: Vascular spasm occurs, cut vessel will constrict for 30 min to lesson blood loss
- Platelets Phase: Platelets attach to injured area and form a platelet plug, occurs 15 sec after injury
- Coagulation Phase: Fibrin (a mesh) is made to cover platelet plug creating blood clot
What cell secretes chemicals and hormones to promote vascular spasm after a cut?
Endothelial cells
_____ transforms into fibrin to cover platelet plug
Fibrinogen
Thrombus is a technical term for a _____-
blood clot
Clotting depends on ___ & ____
Clotting factors and proenzymes
What are the three pathways needed in the formation of Fibrin?
- Extrinsic Pathway
- Intrinsic Pathway
- Common Pathway
Vitamin K is produced by bacteria in _____. It helps with ____. And is gained from eating ____ & _____
large intestine/ clotting/ veggies & meat
Anticoagulants are aka as _____
Blood thinners
The heart is apart of the ___ system
Cardiovascular
Blood is carried away from the heart by ___ and returns via ____
Arteries/ Veins
___ are microscopic vessels that interconnect the smallest arteries to the smaller veins
Capillaries
The _____ is a closed circuit system where blood is contained within vessels at all times during circulation
Heart
The heart beats ____ times a day and pumps ___ gallons of blood each day.
100,000 times / 2000 gallons
List the 4 muscular chambers of the heart
- Right Atrium: Receives deoxygenated blood from the lungs and sends it to the Right Ventricle
- Right Ventricle: pumps deoxygenated blood to lungs
- Left Atrium: Receives oxygenated blood from lungs and sent to tp the Left Ventricle
Left Ventricle: Pumps oxygenated blood to the body and brain
Which sides of the heart carry deoxygenated vs oxygenated blood?
Right: deoxygenated
Left: oxygenated
What is the most important part of the heart, why?
The left ventricle, bc it pumps oxygenated blood to the brain and body
*The heart is protected by a tough protective layer called the
Pericardium
The pericardium is made up of two layers the ____ and _____. What do they each line?
Serous membrane: lines outside of heart
Parietal pericardium: lines inner surface
Between the two layers of the pericardium is the ____ cavity which contains ___ fluid.
Pericardial cavity/ pericardial fluid
The all of the heart is made up of which 3 layers?
- Epicardium - outer most layer
- Myocardium- middle layer
- Endocardium- inner surface
The ___ layer of the heart contains ____ muscle which helps with contractions or “beating”
Myocardium ( middle layer) / cardiac muscle
The endocardium layer of the heart lines ____ & ____
Chambers and valves
The ____ of the heart receives blood from the superior vena cava, inferior vena cava, anterior cardiac veins and coronary sinus.
Right Atrium
What is the job of the superior vena cava, inferior vena cava and coronary sinus? Which one is a vein?
Superior vena cava: Drains blood from head, neck and upper limbs
Inferior vena cava: Drains blood from rest of body
Coronary sinus: Vein that receives blood from cardia veins
Where does the right ventricle of the heart receive blood from?
Tricuspid valvue
What are the 4 blood types? What antigens must each of them have?
Type A: Has surface antigen A
Type B: Has surface antigen B
Type AB: Has both A & B surface antigens
Type O: Has no antigens
The presence of ___ determines if a blood type is + or _
Rh
What sulcus separates atria from ventricles?
Coronary sulcus
What valve separates right atria from right ventricle and is the thinner valve?
Tricuspid valve
What structure separates right and left ventricle?
Interventicular septum
What is the name of the outer layer of the heart?
Epicardium
What vessel is seen only on the posterior side of the heart?
Inferior vena cava
What is the most obvious difference between the right and left ventricle?
The right is thin where the left is thick
Valvular disease is when the ____ of the heart become defective. This can lead to inadequate circulatory flow
Valvular Disease
Carditis is…
Inflammation of the heart
_____ is the inflammation of the endocardium & may lead to vascular heart disease
Endocarditis
___ & ____ can cause endocarditis
Gum infections and tooth decay
People who have ___ have to take antibiotics before dental appointment
Endocarditis
____ is an inflammatory autoimmune response to a streptococcal bacterial infection often seen in children
Rheumatic fever
The ___ _____ supplies the myocardium with O2 and nutrients
Coronary circulation
What is the name of the disease where the coronary blood supply is compromised due to fatty plaque in coronary artery
Coronary Artery Disease ( CAD)
Angina pectorals is another word for a _____
Heart attack
What are some symptoms of angina pectorals?
Chest pressure, sweating, arm, back, jaw, neck and chest pain
How does one protect themselves from experiencing angina pectorals?
Destress, quit smoking, avoid fatty foods, exercise
What is audtorhythmicity?
The hearts ability to contract and relax on its own
The heart can contract and relax on its own is due to the ___ which is basically the pacemaker of the heart
SA node
The SA node generates ___ ____ for the heart to beat
Action potential (electrical impulses)
The sinoatrial (SA) node is located in _____ wall of the ____ ______
Posterior wall of the right atrium
The Atrioventrical (AV) node is located in the ____ of the ____ _____
Floor of the right atrium
_____ cells interconnect both the SA and AV nodes
Conducting cells
The natural pacemaker of the heart is the ____
Sinoatrial (SA) node
If the SA node is damaged, the ____ is able to take over, but at a slower rate
AV node
Heartbeats are recorded by _____
Electrocardiograms (EKGs)
The peaks on a EKG scan measure the _____, where as the intervals measure the _____
Contracts / Action potential (electrical impulses)
What is the pattern sequence of an EKG scan?
P wave, QRS complex, T wave
What does each part of an EKG scan signify?
P wave: measures contraction of atria
QRS complex: Signifies contraction of ventricle
T wave: indicates ventricle repolarization
When seeing a larger, than normal, QRS complex on an EKG scan you can assume this indicates what?
Ab enlarged heart
When seeing a smaller than normal QRS complex on an EKG scan you can assume this indicates what?
Congestive heart failure
When seeing smaller than normal T waves on an EKG scan you can assume this indicates what?
Low levels of potassium and starvation
An EKG interval is
The time between the end of one wave to the end of the next
Cardiac Arrhythmias is another word for what?
irregular heartbeat
What do we rely on for muscle contractions?
Potassium (K)
What are the three steps to action potential in cardiac cells? What happens in each/
- Rapid depolarization: sodium channels open up allowing influx of Na+ in fibers
- Plateau: At 30mv, Na+ channels close. And Ca2+ (calcium channels) open and stay open a little. Allows for stronger
- Repolarization: Slow calcium channels close. K channels open allowing K=+ to float out of cell, restoring cell to resting potential
Where does the hearts cardiac muscle gain energy?
Fats and glucose
The period between the start of one heart beat and beginning go the next is called the ___ cycle
Cardiac cycle
Each heartbeat followed by a brief resting phase is called the ___ ___
Cardiac cycle
The cardiac cycle can be divided into which 2 phases. Describe them
- Systol: Contraction - Chambers empty blood
2. Diastole: Relaxation - Chambers fill with blood
What is the difference between Tachycardia & Brandycardia
Tachycardia: Fast heart beat
Brandycardia: Slow heart beat
What are the two main sounds of the heart, what are we hearting when they occur?
S1: “lubb”- closing of the AV valve
S2: “dubb: - closing of the semilunar valve
If you listen to a athletes chest and their heart sounds is: “lubb, dubbings, bubb”. Is there a problem?
No, this is common
____ ___are rushing, gurgling sounds due to swirling of blood in the AV or semilunar valves
Heart Murmurs
___ the name of the hearts action of pumping blood
Cardiodynamics
Explain what are:
End-diastolic Volume (EDV)
End-systolic Volume (ESV)
Stroke Volume (SV):
End-diastolic Volume (EDV): Amount of blood left in ventricle at end of ventricular diastole (
End-systolic Volume (ESV): Amount of blood left in ventricle at end of ventricular systole
Stroke Volume (SV): Amount of blood pumped out of each ventricle during a single beat
What are some ways to improve ejection fraction?
Lessen salt intake & workout
Cardiac output is….
The amount of blood pumped out by the left ventricle in 1 min
Normal heart rate is between ___ -___
60 -100bpm
Abnormal conditions that affect cardiac output include what?
Temperature, caffeine, nicotine, abnormal ion concentration
What is Preload vs. Afterload?
Preload: Ventricle muscle cells stretching during diastole (good)
Afterload: Increase of pressure while left ventricle pushes blood out (bad)
List 3 heart meds, how they help and what they help with
1) Digitalis
- Elevates calcium ions in the heart = improves contractions
- Treats: congestive heart failure
2) Beta Blockers
- Decreases heart rate and contraction
- Treats hypertension (anxiety)
3) Calcium Channel Blockers
- Reduces Ca2+ into the heart = reduces contractions
- Treats: hypertension
