Exam 1 Flashcards
1
Q
pipettors or micropipettors
A
mechanical pipettes used to measure volumes ranging from .01 microliters to 5000 microliters
2
Q
what do pipettors have
A
plunger with 2 stops, a barrel, an extension that holds disposable tip, a pipette tip ejector
some have a filter
3
Q
what do you change between different solutions or fluids
A
pipette tip
4
Q
adjustable pipettor
A
has a dial or digital display that allows you to set the desired volume
5
Q
where is the maximum capacity of an adjustable pipettor typically inidicated
A
on top of the plunger
6
Q
what is the dial of a pipettor marked in
A
microliter increments and the position of the decimal point is usually indicated by a colored line
7
Q
if a pipettor is used outside of their range what happens to their accuracy
A
the accuracy is greatly reduced
8
Q
can you go over the maximum volume of a pipettor or below the minimum
A
no, never go past these
9
Q
can the tip of pipettor touch anything
A
no, nothing but the solution, start with a new tip
10
Q
how to work a pipettor
A
push plunger to first stop, then slowly release to pull in liquid, push past first stop to second stop to push out the liquid
to remove the tip, push tip ejector
11
Q
what happens if you release the plunger too fast
A
you can get air in the tip
12
Q
should you leave the plunger depressed when removing after releasing fluid
A
yes
13
Q
how far should you put the tip in a fluid
A
about 3mm
14
Q
where should you eject a tip
A
in an appropriate waste container
15
Q
serial dilation
A
transfer of concentrated stock solution across several containers
16
Q
what is serial dilution used for
A
a quick and easy way to produce a solution in a variety of concentrations
can also be the only way to effectively and accurately dilute an extremely concentrated solution
17
Q
what is the difference between each of the various concentrations that result from a serial dilution?
A
constant
18
Q
how does the difference in serial dilations work
A
each one is one half the concentration of the next highest, or each one is one tenth the concentration of the next highest
19
Q
how to do serial dilution
A
have 2000 microliters of solution and 5 tubes with 1000 microliters of water
take 1000 from solution and put in tube 2 and mix, continue down the tubes to tube 6
20
Q
what are ELISA plates used for
A
for enzyme linked immunosorbant essays
21
Q
what is an ELISA used to measure
A
used to measure antibody and hormone levels
22
Q
what objective should you start with on your microscope
A
the lowest objective
23
Q
where should your stage be when starting with microscope
A
high
24
Q
should you turn on the light on your microscope and adjust brightness if needed
A
yes
25
which knob do you start with
the coarse knob, then move to fine knob
26
is more or less light required at a higher magnification
more
27
how should you make any solution from dry chemicals
put 80% of total volume of solvent into mixing vessel
then add chemicals one by one
when all are added transfer solution to a graduated cylinder, add enough liquid to get you to your desired volume, this will help prevent overshooting the desired final volume
28
what does Q.S. mean
quantity sufficient
29
want to prepare 100 ml of 5.00 M stock solution of calcium chloride. MW of calcium chloride is 111.0 g/mole
1. figure out how many grams of calcium chloride would go in 1 L by multiplying the number of moles in 1 L times the MW of the compound. (5.00*111.0 = 555 grams)
2. figure out what fraction of 1 L you are making by dividing by the desired volume of 1 L (100 ml /1000 ml =.1)
3. multiply the fraction of the liter times the number of grams to make 1 L of solution of the same molarity (.1*555g= 55.5 g)
4. to prepare the solution you would add 55.5 g of calcium chloride to approximately 80 ml of solvent, then Q.S. to 100 ml
30
equation for adding dry chemical to make solution
M*MW*V=g
31
diluting a stock solution to a particular concentration
if you know what concentration of a solution you want and need to figure out how much of a concentrated stock solution to dilute, equation
Concentration you want/concentration you have* final volume= volume of concentrated stock to add to mixture
32
example of diluting stock solution to a particular concentration
you want 25 ml of the following solution:
.5 M CaCl2, 1 M MgSO4, you have the following stock solutions:
5.0 M CaCl2, 2.5 M MgSO4
1. how much of the CaCl2 to add (.5M/5.0 M * 25ml =2.5 ml)
2. how much MgSO4 to add (1.0 M/2.5 M*25ml = 10 ml)
3. Q.S. to 25 (25-2.5-10= 12.5 ml of water
33
converting recipes to concentrations
"of" = multiply
| "put amount A into volume B' or add volume B to A amount= A divided by B
34
example of converting recipes to concentrations
example;
100 microliters of glucose (1mg/ml) was diluted 1:100 in DME
1. transfer what was written into a description of was done, use words of and put into
a. 1 mg of glucose was put into 1 ml of solvent
2. 100 microliters of 1mg/ml glucose solution was put into a total of 10 ml of solution (100 microliters* 1mg/ml)/10
3. calculate (100 microliters * 1mg/ml*10^3ml/microliter)/10=10 micrograms/ml
4. concentration they used was 10 micrograms/ml glucose in DME
35
tera (T)
10^12
36
giga (G)
10^9
37
mega (M)
10^6
38
kilo (K)
10^3
39
unit
1
40
milli (m)
10^-3
41
micro (u)
10^-6
42
nano (n)
10^-9
43
pico (p)
10^-12
44
femto (f)
10^-15
45
buffer
a buffer is a weak acid that is added to a solution to prevent changes in the pH when a small amount of strong acid or base is added. buffers work by accommodating the added acid or base with changes in the relative concentrations of the weak acid and its conjugate base
46
diluent
diluent is the medium or solvent added to a concentration solution to dilute it
47
diluting 1:x
recipes for solutions sometimes contain directions for diluting a stock solution according to a certain ratio
1:x dilution means your concentrated solution should be diluted to 1/xth its current concentration
add 1 volume of concentrate (x-1) volumes to diluent to total volume equal to x
1:100 means 1 part concentrate, 99 parts diluent
1:1 means straight concentrate
1:14 means 1 part concentrate, 13 parts diluent
48
meniscus
the surface of liquid in a thing cylindrical container is concave, and the rounded surface is called the meniscus, glassware is calibrated so that the correct volume is measured when the bottom of the meniscus lines up with the volume marking
49
molarity
the molarity of a solution is the moles of solute per liter of solvent
molarity is an SI unit and the symbol is M
example: 1 M NaCl (58.43 g/mole, so solution has 58.43 g of NaCl per liter of solution)
50
molality
the molality of a solution is the moles of solute per kilogram of solvent. molality is not really analogous with molarity: not only do you substitute kilograms for liters, but also molarity is moles per liter of solution, whereas molality is moles per kilogram of solvent.
the symbol for molality= m
51
mole
an amount of 6.022*10^23 of molecules of a substance, one mole of a substance has a mass equal to its molecular weight in grams
52
percent
percent is a dimensionless parameter meaning per one hundred
53
percent per volume or weight per weight
the amounts of ingredients in a solution are sometimes described as a percentage of the total solution. if the units are the same the percentage is what you expect based on the definition of percent
54
percent weight per volume
grams of solute per 100 ml of solvent. generally, a percent solution is considered to be weight/volume and w/v is assumed if not designated
example:
100 ml of 20% NaCl. dissolve 20g of NaCl in 70ml of water and bring volume to 100 ml
55
reagent
a compound or solution that will go into your reaction mixture
56
solute
the dissolved phase of a solution- the stuff you mix in
57
solution
a homogenous mixture of two more more substances; one or more dissolved in solvent
58
solvent
the dispersing phase of a solution- what you mixed stuff into
59
osmosis
water will more toward the area with more solutes
60
types of tonicity
isotonic
hypertonic
hypotonic
61
isotonic
concentration equal inside and outside of the cell
no net movement of water
cell stays the same size
62
hypertonic
high concentration of solutes outside of cell, low inside of the cell
water leaves the cell
63
what happens to the cell in a hypertonic solution
cell shrivels up
64
what is it called when a cell shrivels up
crenate
65
hypotonic
high concentration of solutes inside the cell, low concentration outside of the cell
water moves into the cell
66
what happens to the cell in a hypotonic solution
cell swells
67
what is it called when a cell swells and bursts
hemolyzed
68
what are most substances entering and leaving cell disolved in
water
69
what is the most important solvent for living processes
water
70
what does the cytoplasm of a cell contrain
numerous solutes
| sugar and salts in solution
71
what is the boundary of the cell called
plasma membrane
72
what are plasma membranes composed of
phospholipid bilayer that contains different kinds of embedded or surface proteins
73
how are large molecules cross the plasma membrane
they are engulfed in the membrane, which forms a vesicle that can pass into or out of the cell
74
how do small molecules cross the plasma membrane
diffuse through the spaces between lipid molecules in the membrane
others can bind with membrane proteins and are transported out of the cell
75
why are solutes in a solution in constant motion
their kinetic energy
76
what happens to solutes as temperature increases
increase- movement increases so solutes move more rapidly
| decrease-
77
how does diffusion occur
results from kinetic energy of molecules, and the movement of molecules on average away from regions of high concentration towards regions of low concentration
78
how does diffusion happen
with the concentration gradient
79
what happens if the concentration gradient is steeper
the rate of diffusion is faster
80
does diffusion require cellular energy
no
81
selectively permeable
membrane that block or otherwise slow passage of certain substances
82
osmosis
movement of water across selectively permeable membrane
83
how do normal blood cells look
biconcave disks
84
what is it called when water moves out of a cell
plasmolyzed
85
what type of hormone is cortisol
steriod
86
what is the function of cortisol
increase blood glucose level
87
what is morning burst cortisol
highest peak of cortisol, shortly after waking
88
what does the morning burst cortisol do
helps provide energy for the body
89
what is an ELISA
enzyme linked immunosorbant assay
90
how does an ELISA work
```
1 wells precoated with antibodies (Ab)
2 added spit samples containing cortisol
3 added cortisol bound to an enzyme
4 add TMB
5 added standards
6 stop solution added
```
91
what is a conjugate
cortisol bound to an enzyme
92
what does cortisol and the conjugate compete for
binding sites on the antibodies
93
what is TMB
substrate that enzymes wants to bind to
94
what does TMB binding produce
color change
95
what is standards
known concentrations of cortisol used to build standard curve that you compare spit sample to
96
how do you get your own cortisol level from standards
extrapolate from standard curve to determine exact concentration of cortisol in spit
97
what happens to the color change if you have low cortisol
when TMB is added there is a intense coloration
98
what happens to the color change if you have high cortisol
when TMB is added there is a weak coloration
99
what does low cortisol have an intense coloration
few cortisol bind to antibodies, then the conjugate will fill the rest of the antibodies
when TMB is added conjugate means intense coloration
100
what does high cortisol have a weak coloration
many cortisol bind to the antibodies which means few conjugate can bind to antibodies
when TMB is added there are few conjugate so you have a weak coloration
101
what response is cortisol involved in
stress
102
what is General Adaptation Syndrome
1st stage- alarm reaction stage
2nd- resistance stage
3rd/final- exhaustion stage
103
1 alarm reaction stage
initial reaction when the body first perceives the stressor. Activates within seconds, and the adrenal medulla will secrete epinephrine.
104
2 resistance stage
if stressor persists for a longer period of time (minutes to hours), cortisol will be secreted from the adrenal cortex to allow the body to continue to cope with stressor
105
3 final exhaustion stage
occurs if stressor persists for many hours or days, or is repeated over several hours or days, there will be continued secretion of epinephrine and cortisol
106
what happens in non-human animals when they reach the exhaustion stage
death
107
what did the stress response evolve for
short stressors
108
where do we tend to activate stress response
for situations that are not immediately life threatening
109
what are the consequences for activating stress response when not needed
pathologies including type II diabetes, hypertension, and GI trouble
110
what typically carries corisol in the blood
CBG
| corticosteroid binding globulin
111
what is cortisol called when it is not bound to CBG
free cortisol
112
what can free cortisol do
diffuse into saliva
113
reflex
involuntary response to a stimulus
114
polysynaptic reflex arc
| stages
```
1 receptor
2 sensory neuron
3 inter neuron
4 motor neuron
5 effector
```
115
1 receptor
| polysynaptic reflex arc
detects stimulus
116
2 sensory neuron
| polysynaptic reflex arc
carry signals to CNS
117
3 inter neuron
| polysynaptic reflex arc
relays signal to the neuron
118
4 motor nueron
carries signal to effector
119
5 effector
where response occurs
120
polysynaptic reflex arc
| what does it include
includes interneuron
121
monosynaptic reflex arc
no interneuron, sensory neuron goes directly to motor neuron
122
reflex response
| types
normal
hyperresponse
hyporesponse
123
hyporesponse
| reflex
less noticeable/ no response
124
hyperresponse
| reflex
exaggerated response
125
somatic senses
| detected where
detected throughout the body
126
what are the 5 major somatic senses
```
touch
pressure
pain
temperature
proprioception
```
127
what is proprioception
body positioning
128
punctate distribution
uneven distribution of receptors
129
what occurs with an area of many receptors
high sensitivity
130
what occurs with an area of few receptors
low sensitivity
131
phasic receptor
acclimate to stimuli and you stop noticing them
132
tonic receptor
continue to fire with continued stimuli
133
what are reflexes
involuntary, predictable response to stimuli
134
what do reflexes occur through
reflex arc
135
are reflex tests an essential component of a complete clinical examination of the nervous system
yes
136
stretch reflex
muscle spindle act like a (receptor) and detects changes in length of the muscle
137
receptor modalities
```
photoreceptors
thermoreceptors
proprioceptors
nociceptors
mechanoreceptors
baroreceptors
chemoreceptors
```
138
photoreceptors
detects light
139
thermoreceptors
located in skin, detect change in temperature
140
proprioceptors
detect changes in tension,
141
nociceptors
transmit sensation of pain and are present as free nerve endings
142
mechanoceptors
perceive mechanical stimuli
| touch or pressure
143
baroreceptors
respond to stretch
144
chemoreceptors
respond to changes in chemical environment
145
division of the nervous system
central nervous system and peripheral nervous system
146
divisions of CNS
brain and spinal cord
147
divisions of peripheral nervous system
motor division and sensory division
148
divisions of motor division
somatic and autonomic nervous system
149
divisions of autonomic nervous system
sympathetic
"fight or flight"
parasympathetic
rest and digest
150
autonomic nervous system
| what kind of responses
involuntary responses
| deals with internal organs
151
sympathetic (SANS)
| nerve
nerves originates from "chain" runs parallel to spinal cord
152
what activates SANS
activated during stress and physical activity
153
what is the effects of SANS
increase HR, increase BP, decrease salivation, increase dilation of respiratory airways
154
Parasympathetic (PANS)
| nerve
nerve originates as cranial nerves from the brain stem
155
what is the most important nerve for PANS
vagus nerve
156
what does vagus nerve innervate
most of effectors that are influenced by PANS
157
what are the effects of PANS
decrease HR, decrease BP, increase salivation, constriction of airways in the lungs
158
what do SANS and PANS often share
often innervates the same effectors
159
what does the autonomic nervous system help
helps to maintain background and routine functions of the body so that the brain can focus on other activities
160
what regulates the autonomic nervous system
by reflexes through the brainstem and spinal cord
161
what are major functions of the autonomic nervous system
cardiac regulation, respiratory regulation, vasoconstriction and vasodilation, and many other activities
162
what division is involved in the alarm reaction stage of general adaptation syndrome
sympathetic
163
where is the limbic system
the brain
164
limbic system
one of our major emotional centers
165
vagal tone
represents activity of the vagus nerve
166
what does low vagal tone indicate
sensitivity to stress
| inability of the vagus neve to relax the heart
167
what does high vagal tone indicate
resilience to stress
| good ability of the vagus nerve to lower heart rate
