Exam 1 Flashcards
pipettors or micropipettors
mechanical pipettes used to measure volumes ranging from .01 microliters to 5000 microliters
what do pipettors have
plunger with 2 stops, a barrel, an extension that holds disposable tip, a pipette tip ejector
some have a filter
what do you change between different solutions or fluids
pipette tip
adjustable pipettor
has a dial or digital display that allows you to set the desired volume
where is the maximum capacity of an adjustable pipettor typically inidicated
on top of the plunger
what is the dial of a pipettor marked in
microliter increments and the position of the decimal point is usually indicated by a colored line
if a pipettor is used outside of their range what happens to their accuracy
the accuracy is greatly reduced
can you go over the maximum volume of a pipettor or below the minimum
no, never go past these
can the tip of pipettor touch anything
no, nothing but the solution, start with a new tip
how to work a pipettor
push plunger to first stop, then slowly release to pull in liquid, push past first stop to second stop to push out the liquid
to remove the tip, push tip ejector
what happens if you release the plunger too fast
you can get air in the tip
should you leave the plunger depressed when removing after releasing fluid
yes
how far should you put the tip in a fluid
about 3mm
where should you eject a tip
in an appropriate waste container
serial dilation
transfer of concentrated stock solution across several containers
what is serial dilution used for
a quick and easy way to produce a solution in a variety of concentrations
can also be the only way to effectively and accurately dilute an extremely concentrated solution
what is the difference between each of the various concentrations that result from a serial dilution?
constant
how does the difference in serial dilations work
each one is one half the concentration of the next highest, or each one is one tenth the concentration of the next highest
how to do serial dilution
have 2000 microliters of solution and 5 tubes with 1000 microliters of water
take 1000 from solution and put in tube 2 and mix, continue down the tubes to tube 6
what are ELISA plates used for
for enzyme linked immunosorbant essays
what is an ELISA used to measure
used to measure antibody and hormone levels
what objective should you start with on your microscope
the lowest objective
where should your stage be when starting with microscope
high
should you turn on the light on your microscope and adjust brightness if needed
yes
which knob do you start with
the coarse knob, then move to fine knob
is more or less light required at a higher magnification
more
how should you make any solution from dry chemicals
put 80% of total volume of solvent into mixing vessel
then add chemicals one by one
when all are added transfer solution to a graduated cylinder, add enough liquid to get you to your desired volume, this will help prevent overshooting the desired final volume
what does Q.S. mean
quantity sufficient
want to prepare 100 ml of 5.00 M stock solution of calcium chloride. MW of calcium chloride is 111.0 g/mole
- figure out how many grams of calcium chloride would go in 1 L by multiplying the number of moles in 1 L times the MW of the compound. (5.00*111.0 = 555 grams)
- figure out what fraction of 1 L you are making by dividing by the desired volume of 1 L (100 ml /1000 ml =.1)
- multiply the fraction of the liter times the number of grams to make 1 L of solution of the same molarity (.1*555g= 55.5 g)
- to prepare the solution you would add 55.5 g of calcium chloride to approximately 80 ml of solvent, then Q.S. to 100 ml
equation for adding dry chemical to make solution
MMWV=g
diluting a stock solution to a particular concentration
if you know what concentration of a solution you want and need to figure out how much of a concentrated stock solution to dilute, equation
Concentration you want/concentration you have* final volume= volume of concentrated stock to add to mixture
example of diluting stock solution to a particular concentration
you want 25 ml of the following solution:
.5 M CaCl2, 1 M MgSO4, you have the following stock solutions:
5.0 M CaCl2, 2.5 M MgSO4
- how much of the CaCl2 to add (.5M/5.0 M * 25ml =2.5 ml)
- how much MgSO4 to add (1.0 M/2.5 M*25ml = 10 ml)
- Q.S. to 25 (25-2.5-10= 12.5 ml of water
converting recipes to concentrations
“of” = multiply
“put amount A into volume B’ or add volume B to A amount= A divided by B
example of converting recipes to concentrations
example;
100 microliters of glucose (1mg/ml) was diluted 1:100 in DME
- transfer what was written into a description of was done, use words of and put into
a. 1 mg of glucose was put into 1 ml of solvent - 100 microliters of 1mg/ml glucose solution was put into a total of 10 ml of solution (100 microliters* 1mg/ml)/10
- calculate (100 microliters * 1mg/ml*10^3ml/microliter)/10=10 micrograms/ml
- concentration they used was 10 micrograms/ml glucose in DME
tera (T)
10^12
giga (G)
10^9
mega (M)
10^6
kilo (K)
10^3
unit
1
milli (m)
10^-3
micro (u)
10^-6
nano (n)
10^-9
pico (p)
10^-12
femto (f)
10^-15
buffer
a buffer is a weak acid that is added to a solution to prevent changes in the pH when a small amount of strong acid or base is added. buffers work by accommodating the added acid or base with changes in the relative concentrations of the weak acid and its conjugate base
diluent
diluent is the medium or solvent added to a concentration solution to dilute it
diluting 1:x
recipes for solutions sometimes contain directions for diluting a stock solution according to a certain ratio
1:x dilution means your concentrated solution should be diluted to 1/xth its current concentration
add 1 volume of concentrate (x-1) volumes to diluent to total volume equal to x
1:100 means 1 part concentrate, 99 parts diluent
1:1 means straight concentrate
1:14 means 1 part concentrate, 13 parts diluent
meniscus
the surface of liquid in a thing cylindrical container is concave, and the rounded surface is called the meniscus, glassware is calibrated so that the correct volume is measured when the bottom of the meniscus lines up with the volume marking
molarity
the molarity of a solution is the moles of solute per liter of solvent
molarity is an SI unit and the symbol is M
example: 1 M NaCl (58.43 g/mole, so solution has 58.43 g of NaCl per liter of solution)
molality
the molality of a solution is the moles of solute per kilogram of solvent. molality is not really analogous with molarity: not only do you substitute kilograms for liters, but also molarity is moles per liter of solution, whereas molality is moles per kilogram of solvent.
the symbol for molality= m
mole
an amount of 6.022*10^23 of molecules of a substance, one mole of a substance has a mass equal to its molecular weight in grams
percent
percent is a dimensionless parameter meaning per one hundred
percent per volume or weight per weight
the amounts of ingredients in a solution are sometimes described as a percentage of the total solution. if the units are the same the percentage is what you expect based on the definition of percent
percent weight per volume
grams of solute per 100 ml of solvent. generally, a percent solution is considered to be weight/volume and w/v is assumed if not designated
example:
100 ml of 20% NaCl. dissolve 20g of NaCl in 70ml of water and bring volume to 100 ml
reagent
a compound or solution that will go into your reaction mixture
solute
the dissolved phase of a solution- the stuff you mix in
solution
a homogenous mixture of two more more substances; one or more dissolved in solvent
solvent
the dispersing phase of a solution- what you mixed stuff into
osmosis
water will more toward the area with more solutes
types of tonicity
isotonic
hypertonic
hypotonic
isotonic
concentration equal inside and outside of the cell
no net movement of water
cell stays the same size
hypertonic
high concentration of solutes outside of cell, low inside of the cell
water leaves the cell
what happens to the cell in a hypertonic solution
cell shrivels up
what is it called when a cell shrivels up
crenate
hypotonic
high concentration of solutes inside the cell, low concentration outside of the cell
water moves into the cell
what happens to the cell in a hypotonic solution
cell swells
what is it called when a cell swells and bursts
hemolyzed
what are most substances entering and leaving cell disolved in
water
what is the most important solvent for living processes
water
what does the cytoplasm of a cell contrain
numerous solutes
sugar and salts in solution
what is the boundary of the cell called
plasma membrane
what are plasma membranes composed of
phospholipid bilayer that contains different kinds of embedded or surface proteins
how are large molecules cross the plasma membrane
they are engulfed in the membrane, which forms a vesicle that can pass into or out of the cell
how do small molecules cross the plasma membrane
diffuse through the spaces between lipid molecules in the membrane
others can bind with membrane proteins and are transported out of the cell
why are solutes in a solution in constant motion
their kinetic energy
what happens to solutes as temperature increases
increase- movement increases so solutes move more rapidly
decrease-
how does diffusion occur
results from kinetic energy of molecules, and the movement of molecules on average away from regions of high concentration towards regions of low concentration
how does diffusion happen
with the concentration gradient
what happens if the concentration gradient is steeper
the rate of diffusion is faster
does diffusion require cellular energy
no
selectively permeable
membrane that block or otherwise slow passage of certain substances
osmosis
movement of water across selectively permeable membrane
how do normal blood cells look
biconcave disks
what is it called when water moves out of a cell
plasmolyzed
what type of hormone is cortisol
steriod
what is the function of cortisol
increase blood glucose level
what is morning burst cortisol
highest peak of cortisol, shortly after waking
what does the morning burst cortisol do
helps provide energy for the body
what is an ELISA
enzyme linked immunosorbant assay
how does an ELISA work
1 wells precoated with antibodies (Ab) 2 added spit samples containing cortisol 3 added cortisol bound to an enzyme 4 add TMB 5 added standards 6 stop solution added
what is a conjugate
cortisol bound to an enzyme
what does cortisol and the conjugate compete for
binding sites on the antibodies
what is TMB
substrate that enzymes wants to bind to
what does TMB binding produce
color change
what is standards
known concentrations of cortisol used to build standard curve that you compare spit sample to
how do you get your own cortisol level from standards
extrapolate from standard curve to determine exact concentration of cortisol in spit
what happens to the color change if you have low cortisol
when TMB is added there is a intense coloration
what happens to the color change if you have high cortisol
when TMB is added there is a weak coloration
what does low cortisol have an intense coloration
few cortisol bind to antibodies, then the conjugate will fill the rest of the antibodies
when TMB is added conjugate means intense coloration
what does high cortisol have a weak coloration
many cortisol bind to the antibodies which means few conjugate can bind to antibodies
when TMB is added there are few conjugate so you have a weak coloration
what response is cortisol involved in
stress
what is General Adaptation Syndrome
1st stage- alarm reaction stage
2nd- resistance stage
3rd/final- exhaustion stage
1 alarm reaction stage
initial reaction when the body first perceives the stressor. Activates within seconds, and the adrenal medulla will secrete epinephrine.
2 resistance stage
if stressor persists for a longer period of time (minutes to hours), cortisol will be secreted from the adrenal cortex to allow the body to continue to cope with stressor
3 final exhaustion stage
occurs if stressor persists for many hours or days, or is repeated over several hours or days, there will be continued secretion of epinephrine and cortisol
what happens in non-human animals when they reach the exhaustion stage
death
what did the stress response evolve for
short stressors
where do we tend to activate stress response
for situations that are not immediately life threatening
what are the consequences for activating stress response when not needed
pathologies including type II diabetes, hypertension, and GI trouble
what typically carries corisol in the blood
CBG
corticosteroid binding globulin
what is cortisol called when it is not bound to CBG
free cortisol
what can free cortisol do
diffuse into saliva
reflex
involuntary response to a stimulus
polysynaptic reflex arc
stages
1 receptor 2 sensory neuron 3 inter neuron 4 motor neuron 5 effector
1 receptor
polysynaptic reflex arc
detects stimulus
2 sensory neuron
polysynaptic reflex arc
carry signals to CNS
3 inter neuron
polysynaptic reflex arc
relays signal to the neuron
4 motor nueron
carries signal to effector
5 effector
where response occurs
polysynaptic reflex arc
what does it include
includes interneuron
monosynaptic reflex arc
no interneuron, sensory neuron goes directly to motor neuron
reflex response
types
normal
hyperresponse
hyporesponse
hyporesponse
reflex
less noticeable/ no response
hyperresponse
reflex
exaggerated response
somatic senses
detected where
detected throughout the body
what are the 5 major somatic senses
touch pressure pain temperature proprioception
what is proprioception
body positioning
punctate distribution
uneven distribution of receptors
what occurs with an area of many receptors
high sensitivity
what occurs with an area of few receptors
low sensitivity
phasic receptor
acclimate to stimuli and you stop noticing them
tonic receptor
continue to fire with continued stimuli
what are reflexes
involuntary, predictable response to stimuli
what do reflexes occur through
reflex arc
are reflex tests an essential component of a complete clinical examination of the nervous system
yes
stretch reflex
muscle spindle act like a (receptor) and detects changes in length of the muscle
receptor modalities
photoreceptors thermoreceptors proprioceptors nociceptors mechanoreceptors baroreceptors chemoreceptors
photoreceptors
detects light
thermoreceptors
located in skin, detect change in temperature
proprioceptors
detect changes in tension,
nociceptors
transmit sensation of pain and are present as free nerve endings
mechanoceptors
perceive mechanical stimuli
touch or pressure
baroreceptors
respond to stretch
chemoreceptors
respond to changes in chemical environment
division of the nervous system
central nervous system and peripheral nervous system
divisions of CNS
brain and spinal cord
divisions of peripheral nervous system
motor division and sensory division
divisions of motor division
somatic and autonomic nervous system
divisions of autonomic nervous system
sympathetic
“fight or flight”
parasympathetic
rest and digest
autonomic nervous system
what kind of responses
involuntary responses
deals with internal organs
sympathetic (SANS)
nerve
nerves originates from “chain” runs parallel to spinal cord
what activates SANS
activated during stress and physical activity
what is the effects of SANS
increase HR, increase BP, decrease salivation, increase dilation of respiratory airways
Parasympathetic (PANS)
nerve
nerve originates as cranial nerves from the brain stem
what is the most important nerve for PANS
vagus nerve
what does vagus nerve innervate
most of effectors that are influenced by PANS
what are the effects of PANS
decrease HR, decrease BP, increase salivation, constriction of airways in the lungs
what do SANS and PANS often share
often innervates the same effectors
what does the autonomic nervous system help
helps to maintain background and routine functions of the body so that the brain can focus on other activities
what regulates the autonomic nervous system
by reflexes through the brainstem and spinal cord
what are major functions of the autonomic nervous system
cardiac regulation, respiratory regulation, vasoconstriction and vasodilation, and many other activities
what division is involved in the alarm reaction stage of general adaptation syndrome
sympathetic
where is the limbic system
the brain
limbic system
one of our major emotional centers
vagal tone
represents activity of the vagus nerve
what does low vagal tone indicate
sensitivity to stress
inability of the vagus neve to relax the heart
what does high vagal tone indicate
resilience to stress
good ability of the vagus nerve to lower heart rate
