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Bio 152 > Evolution > Flashcards

Evolution Flashcards

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Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

Linnaeus

A

founder of taxonomy

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2
Q

John-Baptiste Lamarck

A

evolution due to acquired traits FALSE

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3
Q

Cuvier

A

father of paleontology
did not follow evolution
strata: result of catastrophes

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4
Q

Hutton

A

theory of uniformitarism: earth is older than thought

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5
Q

Lyell

A

wrote Principles of Geology

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6
Q

Malthus

A

“An Essay on the Principle of Population”

Malthusian disaster: population overtakes food supply

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7
Q

Wallace

A

came up with idea of natural selection on his own

indirectly pushed Darwin to publish in 1859

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8
Q

4 Observations of Evolution

A
  1. variation in populations
  2. traits are inherited from parents
  3. all species capable of producing more offspring that environment able to support
  4. many offspring do not survive because of competition
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9
Q

2 Inferences of Evolution

A
  1. individuals with inherited traits that help them survive have more offspring
  2. unequal ability to reproduce makes one characteristic more prevalent
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10
Q

Evidence for evolution

A
  1. artificial breeding of plants and animals
  2. fossil records
  3. biogeography
  4. Endemic species
  5. Homology
  6. Analogy
  7. Vestigial structures
  8. Embryology
  9. Microevolution
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11
Q

Biogeography

A

geographic distribution of species.

pangea has come together and split apart 3 times

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12
Q

Endemic species

A

found in only one place one earth. usually islands

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13
Q

Homology

A

tetrapod arm structure

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14
Q

Analogy

A

result of convergent evolution: similar environments but no common ancestor

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15
Q

microevolution

A

initial drug resistance (vertical, traditional evolution)

second wave drug resistance: plasmid exchange (horizontal evolution)

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16
Q

Conditions for Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium

A
  1. large population
  2. Random mating
  3. No net mutations
  4. No selection/differences in ability to survive and reproduce
  5. No immigration/emigration
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17
Q

Effect of migration of evolution

A
  • immigration: increases genetic variety
  • emigration: reduces genetic variety
  • homogenizing force
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18
Q

Random genetic drift

A
  • change in allele frequency
  • not an adaptive force, change due to chance
  • could lead to fixation of an allele (greater chance in small population)
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19
Q

Directional natural selection

A

one extreme favored.

genetic variety reduced

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20
Q

Stabilizing selection

A

mean is favored.

Extreme phenotypes selected against

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21
Q

Disruptive selection

A

favors both extremes

genetic diversity increased, could lead to speciation

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22
Q

Balancing selection

A

broad term for any selection that acts to maintain diversity

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23
Q

Constraints of Natural Selection

A
  1. genetic variation needed
  2. phylogenetic inertia
  3. plietrophy
  4. Evolutionary trade-offs
  5. Random genetic drift interferes in small populations
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24
Q

Plietrophy

A

one gene that codes for many traits.

selection is unable to select against one of the traits because the others are necessary

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25
Q

Asymmetry of Sex

A
  • eggs are expensive/hard to make—>makes women choosey

- sperm is cheap—->men limited by ability to find mate

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26
Q

Sexual dimorphism

A

males and females look different

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27
Q

Reasons for ornamentation

A
  1. Sexier son’s hypothesis/Fisher’s Runaway Process: females want sons to be sexy and mate so female chooses a sexy husband.
  2. “Good genes” trait: grey tree frogs with longer calls (that ladies like) have better fitness
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28
Q

Intrasexual combat

A

competition between males for females

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29
Q

intersexual choice

A

choosy females

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30
Q

It’s good to be a whore

A
  1. food gifts from possible mates
  2. Some mates are incompatible with each other
  3. Question of parentage gets more males involved in raising young
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31
Q

Point mutations

A

caused by replication error in meiosis or meitosis

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32
Q

Exon shuffling

A

expressed part of gene in new location leads to new protein

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33
Q

Transposable elements

A

transposons change positions within the genome

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34
Q

Horizontal gene transfer

A

transfer of genetic material from one individual to another

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35
Q

autopolyploid

A

individual with 2 or more sets of chromosomes from one species because of a failure to reduce number during meiosis

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36
Q

allopolyploid

A

individual with 2 or more sets of chromosomes from different species—>hybrid species

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37
Q

Rate of mutation dependent on….

A
  1. error rate

2. generation time

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38
Q

benefits of sex

A
  1. recombination creates new combinations of alleles
  2. increases genetic variation
  3. unfavorable mutations quickly purged from population
  4. Moving target for pathogens
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39
Q

costs of sex

A
  1. loss of fitness relative to clonal populations
  2. two-fold cost of sex: we cannot exponentially grow because we need males for ferilization
  3. only 1/2 of genes passed on
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40
Q

costs of being clonal

A
  1. evolutionary dead-end
  2. Muller’s Ratchet: mutations are not purged but perpetuated
  3. Kondrashov’s Hatchet: there is a level of mutations that is too high for an organism to survive
  4. Red Queen: clonal populations are a stationary target for pathogens
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41
Q

Allopatric speciation

A

Dispersal: colonization of islands/lakes
Vicariance: geological barriers cause isolatioin

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42
Q

Sympatric speciation

A

speciation without geographic barriers

results from polyploidism, niche partitioning, differences in habits between populations (like mating seasons)

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43
Q

Parapatric speciation

A

geologically separated but not isolated

44
Q

Biological species concept

definition, strengths, weaknesses

A

Groups that can interbreed and produce viable/fertile offspring are a species
Strength: very clear
Weaknesses: not good for asexual populations, divergent species can hybridize, only applicable to present, ring species

45
Q

Phylogenetic Species Concept

definition, strengths, weaknesses

A

constructs trees using DNA/other proteins
groups with a common ancestor are monophyletic
Strengths: easy to see relationships, can be used for extinct and extant species
Weaknesses: difficult to construct accurate trees, we may choose an unimportant trait and falsely relate/fail to relate species

46
Q

Phenetic/Morphological Species concept

definition, strength, weaknesses

A

Identifies species using overall trait similarities
Strength: most intuitive, easiest to makes
Weaknesses: different species look similar (convergence), populations of same species may look different, speciation can occur without a change in appearance

47
Q

Lamarck theory of evolution

A

“Ladder of Life”/linear process
implies progress
PROBLEM: all surviving species are equally evolved

48
Q

Sister taxa

A

groups that share a common immediate ancestor

49
Q

Phylogeny

A

depiction of ancestral relations between species

50
Q

Pedigree

A

ancestral relations in a population

51
Q

Taxon

A

tip of a branch

52
Q

Node

A

speciation event.

most recent common ancestor of sister taxa

53
Q

Monophyletic group

A

contains all sister taxa

54
Q

Paraphyletic group

A

does not contain all sister taxa

examples: fish, prokaryotes

55
Q

Polyphyletic groups

A

includes more than all sister taxa of one monophyletic groups

56
Q

Polytomy

A

unresolved branch point

57
Q

Molecular clock

A
  • mutations occur at a certain rate
  • more mutational differences between taxa=branched from a common ancestor longer ago
  • therefor longer branches on phylogeny=greater evolutionary distance
58
Q

Which type of mutations are best for making phylogenies?

A

Neutral mutations because they are not subject to selection

59
Q

Parsimony

A

-uses discrete characteristics (mutations, a trait)
-correct tree is one that has the least character-trait transitions
BENEFITS:
-Simple and fast
DRAWBACKS:
-Less accurate at greater genetic distances
can be misleading if different lineages have different mutation rates

60
Q

Out-group

A

taxon that is least related to all other taxa

61
Q

Distance Matrix Model

A

-uses continuous or discrete traits
-assumes evolution happens at same rate in all branches
PROBLEMS:
-needs a lot of data for accuracy
BENEFITS:
-more accurate than parsimony
-fast

62
Q

First nucleic material

A

RNA because ribozymes (RNA molecules) used to catalyze reactions

63
Q

Endosymbiont Theory

A

chloroplast, mitochondria were once free living because have own circular DNA
Mitochondria have a double membrane

64
Q

Characteristics of prokaryotes

A

no internal membrane, organelles, nucleus

bacteria and archaea (not a monophyletic group)

65
Q

extremophiles

A

archaea that live in extreme environments

66
Q

extreme halophile

A

archeae that live in extremely salty environments

ex: dead sea archaea

67
Q

Extreme thermophiles

A

archaea living in extremely hot environments

68
Q

Methanogen

A

archaea in swamps
produce methane gas as waste product
poisoned by oxygen
digest cellulose

69
Q

subgroups of bacteria

A
  • chlamydias
  • spirocheles
  • cyanobacteria
  • gram-positive
  • Proteobacteria
70
Q

Obligate aerobes

A

required oxygen

71
Q

obligate anerobes

A

poisoned by oxygen, use fermentation

72
Q

faculatative bacteria

A

can do anaerobic and aerobic respiration

73
Q

reasons for genetic variation in prokaryotes

A
  1. high mutation rate
  2. short generation time
  3. horizontal gene transfer
74
Q

transformation

A

prokaryote takes up DNA from environment and incorporates it into its own

75
Q

transduction

A

gene transfer between bactera by bacteriophages

76
Q

Conjugation

A

genetic material transferred by sex pili conjugation tube (F factor required to produce pili

77
Q

Pan Genome

A

combination of core and dispensible genes of bacteria

78
Q

Cambrian explosion

A

new body forms (like hard body parts)
~1/2 billion years ago
evolution of first true animals
fossil record says happened quickly, molecular clock says it took for time

79
Q

Origin of multicellularity

A

oxygen revolution

80
Q

Results of oxygen revolution

A

-higher metabolic rate
-larger body size
-powered motion
because more energy could be gained from glucose through aerobic respiration than through anaerobic

81
Q

Homeobox (HOX) Genes

A

turn on regulatory protiens, transcription factors
result of family of genes created by gene duplication
NOT in prokaryotes or plants
if expressed in wrong location, wrong body part made

82
Q

Four Co-evolution Relationships

A
  1. Predator-Prey
  2. Host-Parasite/Pathogen
  3. Plant-Polinater
  4. Mimicry
83
Q

Predator-Prey example

A

Murex strong shell and crab powerful claws

84
Q

Host-Parasite/Pathogen

A

host defenses raised, pathogen more virulent

85
Q

Parasite trade-offs

A

If parasite more virulent, kills host faster

If parasite less virulent, host infective for longer and probably won’t die

86
Q

Plant-Polinater

A

directional selection causes it

If only one insect per plant, insect garunteed food, cross polination less of an issue

87
Q

Batesian Mimicry

A

driven by predation

model evolves to not look like mimic mimic evolves to look like model

88
Q

Evolution of chordates: 4 shared characteristics

A
  1. notocords
  2. nerve cord
  3. muscular post-anal tail
  4. Plaryngeal clifts/slits
89
Q

Craniate

A

chordates with head
share skull, brain, eyes, other sensory organs
allows for complex movement

90
Q

neural crest

A

in craniates, collection of cells near dorsal closing of neural tube in embryo

91
Q

Notocord

A

longitudinal, flexible rod between digestive tube and nerve cord.
provides skeletal support
most vertebrates: a more complex bone structure formed

92
Q

Nerve cord

A

develops into central nervous system

made of ectoderm

93
Q

Pharyngeal clefts/slits

A

in aquatic animals=gills

ears, head, neck in arthropods

94
Q

Consequences/Purpose of Developmental Genes

A

increased diversity
new morphological forms
transcription factors that regulate other genes’ expression rate, timing, spatial pattern of adult

95
Q

characteristics organisms with verebral columns

A 
efficient at capturing prey/avoiding predators
enclosed spinal cord
backbone
elaborate skull
fin rays (aquatic form)
Example: sea lamprey
96
Q

Gnathostomes

A

vertebrates with jaws

most likely evolved from modified skeletal support of pharyngeal slits

97
Q

Characteristics of tetrapods

A 
4 limbs, feet with digits
neck
fusion of pelvic girdle 
absence of gills
ears to detect airborne sounds
98
Q

Challenges of Life on Land

A

Must counterbalance in less dense air so strong/unflexable bones needed
Distinct vertebral regions/muscle groups to support posture
Limb girdles needed for locomotion

99
Q

Amniote characteristics

A 
amnion (protects embryo from mechanical shock)
yolk sac (nutrients)
Allantois (disposal for waste)
Chorion (gas exchange)
100
Q

Humans are different from chimps in five ways

A
  1. Transcription factors
  2. Brain size: body size ration
  3. Bipedalism
  4. Reduced jaw size
  5. Reduced sexual dimorphism
101
Q

Larger Brain: evolution, consequences

A 
Result of change in transcription factors expression/timing
psychiatric disorders (schizophrenia, Alzheimer's)
Cancer (results of loss of tumor suppressor gene
102
Q

Bipedalism: consequences

A

freeing of hands
painful childbirth
stress in knees, back
non-grasping feet

103
Q

Jaw Size: evolution, consequences

A

Result of change in diet

teeth didnt shrink enough for mouth=crooked teeth

104
Q

Loss of Sexual Dimorphism: evolution of

A

change in sexual mating system

105
Q

Multiregional Model

A
  • Homo erectus left Africa and evolved into Homo sapiens independently across globe
  • Gene flow between populations prevented speciation
  • If true, lots of genetic diversity among human populations and about the same within regions
106
Q

“Out of Africa” Model

A
  • Homo erectus left Africa and speciated
  • Homo sapien evolvd in Africa, migrated, and replaced Homo erectus
  • If true, small genetic diversity among human populations and most diversity in Africa
  • Evidence for: most genetic diversity is in Africa and genetic diversity among humans is small

Bio 152 (3 decks)

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