everything Flashcards

Question

what did Wood and Wilson, 2010 find about having a moving goalkeeper when taking penalties?

Answer 1

in trials where goalie moved - looked at and fixated on goalie much more than when not moving looked at goalie more than goal when moving in high threat more than low threat - movement messes up attentional control more misses and less accurate with threat and distraction

Answer 2

control group just practiced quiet-eye group given targets to hit and shown their eye tracker footage to see where fixating (should focusing on target) penalty shoot out with eye trackers in front of all ppts with moving goalie - quiet-eye group focusing more on where trying to shoot so maintaining attentional control in threat situation and were more accurate than before training and than the other team

Answer 3

perception of one's capacities to be able to cope and attain goals under stress 1. contingency - perception of outcome uncertainty "what effect do i have on outcome" 2. competence - perception of ability "how good am i" 3. control - ability to achieve goal (score) and cope with pressure "can i deal with this situation"

Answer 4

by working out gaze direction by comparing the relative position of the pupil and the relationship between it and the corneal eflection (glint) made easier by red illumination of eye producing 'bright pupil' effect

Answer 5

gaze is maintained on location for sufficient time to allow information to be processed within 3 degrees of visual angle for 100ms or longer (at least 180ms to see object and initiate simple movement)

Answer 6

eyes move quickly from one location to the other, jump which bring new part of visual field into foveal vision 60-100ms (fastest eye movement) can't pick up informaion during saccade (saccadic suppression)

Answer 7

user's interest in object when viewing a scene

Answer 8

number of consecutive fixations in an area of interest gaze duration is total of fixation durations in a particular area

Answer 9

line connecting conecutive fixations | reveals viewers visual exploration strategies and very different in experts and novices

Answer 10

missing something in your field of sight due to focusing on certain aspects in visual field

Answer 11

ronaldo looked at ball and player to work out what they're going to do and chooses his actions accordingly non-expert looked at ball the whole time

Answer 12

younger look ahead at target whereas older look only a couple of steps ahead Uiga et al., 2015

Answer 13

found experts used fewer fixations of longer durations (therefore taking in much more info and less internal and external distraction info as fewer saccades as well) and longer QE period (final fixation before action)

Answer 14

number of fixations / mean duration of fixation experts have lower search rate as fewer fixations for longer durations so less saccadic suppression

Answer 15

these instructions dominate gaze behaviour in the performance of visually guided actions task specific/goal-directed eye movements to support the planning and control of actions dorsal attention

Answer 16

final fixation or tracking gaze directed to a single location in the visuomotor workspace within 3 degrees of a visual angle for a minimum of 100ms onset - before final/critical movement in motor task offset - when fixation deviates off target by more than 3 degrees of visual angle for more than 100ms

Answer 17

hands and rest of body are controlled by brain which gets valuable information about what to do from eyes brief window of neural networks being organised so measure of visuomotor control

Answer 18

golf - keep eye on where ball was during and after putting basketball - look at traget before throwing but after doesn't matter where you look as ball restricts vision of target

Answer 19

ASL = 1 eye | SMI - both

Answer 20

ventral attention stimulus driven so directs attention to salient/novel cues, allowing distractions to be noted

Answer 21

large effect size between experts and novices performing quiet eye and large effect size between quiet eye and performance suggests duration of quiet eye period related to performance and difference between experts and novices suggests it should be trained as a factor in differentiating performance

Answer 22

quiet eye period during the aciton e.g putt decreases when anxiety increases, showing breakdown of attentional control

Answer 23

novices - help with acquisition of the skill (& performance under pressure) experts - help with refinement of skill (& peformance under pressure)

Answer 24

performance and quiet eye better when QET during retentions and under pressure and skilled learned faster technically trained group drop under pressure suported by study by Vine and Wilson, 2010

Answer 25

mean error rate constant and lower when QET and quiet eye duration consistantly longer whereas control error rate higher and increased during pressure situation, as well as quiet eye period less and decreased under pressure also constant decrease in cardiac output just before skill performed (maintaining focus and not stressed) but increased then decreased but not to same level in control also muscle activity lower in QET group indicating more efficient movement and minimum amount of contraction necessary to perform movement (measured by EMG) none of these factors told about, just happened due to applying QET

Answer 26

better rifle aim after QET despite being poorer than control orginially

Answer 27

surgeons only looked at target novices often looked at the impliments they were using or switched gaze between them instead of fixating on a location (similar to findings in a sports setting) gaze, motor and no training (discovery), found gaze trained had fastest completion time whereas movement group even worse than discovery group and multitasking task gaze group the best again

Answer 28

those taught how to perform QE better in holing putts in both retention and pressure situation those who didn't receive training had complete breakdown under pressure also performed on an actual golf course so naturalistic not in laboratory

Answer 29

1) prepare - readying and imaging 2) perform - focusing external attention (quiet eye) and executing with a quiet mind 3) review - evaluating and feedback for next attempt

Answer 30

self-select not to take part in activities | leads to obesity in adulthood as inactivity continues into adulthood

Answer 31

low coordination i.e poor catch success exhibited much less quiet eye duration than those with high/medium motor coordination (despite never having been taught about gaze showing gaze important in coordination)

Answer 32

i.e gaze behaviour emphasised when watching 'how to' video also used kids with dyspraxia/developmental coordination disorder so showed they can learn better attentional control - just about teaching it in the right way measured qualitative as if simply can't catch then range of behaviours shoud be noted to distinguish between missed catches improved catching ability and lower elbow angle (good) for QET group when quiet eye period longer and earlier in another study some children improved by 35% (QET) and general motor coordination improved as reported by parents

Answer 33

cognitive associative autonomous

Answer 34

concerned with generic aspects of skill e.g what needs to be done and what goes where knowledge is explicit and based on rules dramatic changes in performance and is highly variable due to retaining successful and rejecting unsuccessful strategies make lots of errors and obvious mistakes

Answer 35

refinement of skill performace changes more subtle and less variable nature of cognitive activity changes (more emphasis on error detection than skill learning) less obvious errors

Answer 36

in this stage after months/years of practice automation of skill and performed with less intereference from other tasks knowledge is implicit and non-verbalisable so struggle to explain what they are doing as they aren't thinking about it little to no variability between trials

Answer 37

requires awareness, attention and reflection consciously recalled constant repition can transfer declarative to procedural knowledge encompasses explicit knowledge required in cognitive learning stage

Answer 38

occurs without attention, conscious or awareness developed slowly through repitition of an act over many trials under varying circumstances

Answer 39

allows us to store useful information long enough to make a decision/perform an action composed of phonological loop, visuo-spatial sketchpad and central executive particularly useful for cognitive stage as need to store information temporarily to aid performance of action but may get overwhelmed due to only having a limited capacity

Answer 40

rely on working memory for storage and manipulation verbally based and open to introspection so conciously aware of info being processed

Answer 41

unavailable for conscios inspection and difficult to verbalise

Answer 42

accrual of motor skill without accumulation of, or at least conscious access to explicit knowledge e.g rules that underlie the performance of the skill

Answer 43

turning one's attention inward to the mechanics of one's movement (explicit knowledge) so overthinking and not able to perform effortlessly determined by 3 things: 1. performance context e.g seeing pressure as anxiety inducing or a challenge 2. predisposition as measured by movement specific reinvestment scale: consciously processing motor movements and movement self-conscious questions 3. degree to which underlying knowledge of the skill is accessible to consciousness as declarative knowledge - implicating that intial learning of movement should be implicit so no declarative knowledge to reinvest in

Answer 44

reinvesting is positively correated with requiring more time to plan the movements and more foot placement errors

Answer 45

1. fewer rules generated and can't verbalise what they're doing (lack of explicit verbal knowledge) 2. smooth movement 3. faster probe reaction times 4. low coherence between motor planning and verbal analytical regions of the brain 5. robustness to stress 6. phenomenal sense of intuition (anecdotal)

Answer 46

T3/7 where processing of explicit rules takes place (verbal-analytical) Fz where execution of movement takes place (motor planning) explicit - coherence (connection) between these regions as link between part thinking about and part performing rules implicit - less coherence as don't need access to part thinking about rules (T3/7)

Answer 47

hence restricting build-up of declarative knowledge... 1. loading working memory with a secondary task 2. errorless learning 3. analogy learning others: 1. no outcome feedback 2. marginally perceptive outcome feeback 3. quiet eye training? 4. brain stimulation

Answer 48

used dual-task learning as a mechanism for implicit learning by asking ppts to generate random letters while learning how to putt, meaning they were unable to explicitly learn rules associated with putting due to a full working memory shown to help them learn implicitly as had fewer explicit rules reported implicit group learnt slower so performance progressed much slower but kept improving, even under pressure (more robust under psychological stress), whereas control and explicit group performance declined under pressure

Answer 49

leads to much slower learning so means coach has to spend more time teaching skill compared to normal also, not everyone learning the skill will need to perform under stress so seems pointless learning implicitly to become more robust in situations they won't be in

Answer 50

isn't making no mistakes, but learning in a way to minimise mistakes e.g when learning to putt, go further and further back when prove capable at a certain distance by making limited errors implicit - - less likely to analyse performance if performance was successful Maxwell et al., 2001: - performance less affected when performing a dual-task, suggesting not having to think about what they're doing - perform better under pressure, report fewer rules and better when attempting a novel distance -Zhu et al, 2011 found increased coherence between T3-Fz when errorful over errorless learning

Answer 51

found that when Parkinson sufferers were told to walk like they were following footprints in the sand, they were able to walk in a faster and more stable manner equally, with stroke patients, given analogies for walking e.g imagine you are kicking a football in front of you, found walking performance improved compared to before they were given analogies

Answer 52

implicit / errorless - those with low motor ability and explicit for those with high motor ability (Maxwell, Capio & Masters, 2016) analogy - for novices, yet to master the action but not for experts who already have a specific way of performing the action

Answer 53

distractibility by external stimuli and focusing less on relevant stimuli

Answer 54

has advantages for picking up skill quicker when compared to implicit learning - implications for coaches and players who will never be involved in a pressure situation 'somatic attention' good for experts trying to get better by analysing their performance good for experts trying to re-learn skills after injury

Answer 55

``` Analysis Awareness Adjustment Automation (re-) Assurance ```

Answer 56

Deikman, 1969 first proposed reinvestment theory as a way of unravelling automation of movement by reinvesting in actions and attention

Answer 57

aim: investigate whether QET acts as a form of IML findings: QET group had decrease in error between retention and pressure whereas explicit showed increased and analogy showed no difference limitations: 1. analogy group given analogy which may have led them to focus attention internally as phrasing 'arms swinging the pendulum of a clock' instead of saying 'club' 2. inclusion of baseline may have focused attention inwards when high error rate so explicit rules considered 3. no measure of external attention 4. should have control group given no instructions to strengthen comparison means to implicit? PROS - less conscious awareness and explicit rules and reduced reinvestment and choking CON- could be due to promoting external focus of attention focused on gaze instead of irrelevant stimuli

Answer 58

internal - paying attention to how feet moving external - paying attention to how board moving found fell in less when paying attention to external cues

Answer 59

to do with concentration and focus what we are thinking about/aware of consciousness, awareness and cognitive effort (takes lots of cognitive resources) attentional capacity limited

Answer 60

focussing on relevant environmental cues ignore irrelevant cues ability at doing this depends on: experience quality of instruction arousal - anxiety

Answer 61

direct learners to focus on the movement (external focus)

Answer 62

1. reinvestment 2. explicit monitoring - thinking about what doing instead of subconsciously 3. ironic processing - try not to think about something but ends up being what you're thinking about, leading to becoming more anxious 4. hyperdistractibility - anxiety leads to losing focus as distractible 5. constrained action hypothesis important when considering instructions and feedback in skill acquisition environments

Answer 63

internal - focus on body movements external - effect of movements on environment

Answer 64

no, attentional focus may be thinking about feet on board but visual focus may be looking in front of him

Answer 65

internal focus - exert force with outer foot external focus - exert force on outer wheels (1 word difference between instructions optimal) control group - no instructions aim to get ski simulator from one side to the other whilst remaining balanced found external focus lead to greater amplitude travelled (cm) in practice and at retention (without instructions) than control group and internal focus were the worst suggesting external focus better than internal supported by second experiment by these people finding that external group better at retention in stabilometer task - but markers in front of feet may have brough awareness to feet (why not so much improvement)

Answer 66

had 3 different marker positions and internal focus group found better balance performance when markers aware from feet than when internal or near feet further away from body you think about, the more effective it is so suggesting external focus better

Answer 67

ppts were novices internal, external and control group shot from 15m away, found external group more accurate than control and internal few confounding variables as changing 1 word in instructions i.e focus on swing of arms/club

Answer 68

pitch shot to smaller target and given points based on accuracy external focus group still better accuracy than controlled and internal important as improving performance for athletes at the top of their game (control group were level they wer previously at)

Answer 69

subject to publication bias as only publishing if significant result comparing internal to external, so may be quite a few studies not showing significant difference between the 2 combat this by sending study criteria, getting accepted, then publishing regardless of results

Answer 70

internal focus/attempting to consciously control one's movements constrains motor systems by disruption of automatic control processes external focus/focusing on movement effect promotes use of automatic control processes limitation that novices don't have these processes so why does it happen for them? nothing in theory about how/why it works? - descriptive theory

Answer 71

shorter reaction time, better performance (fewer errors) and faster movement adjustment with external focus implies reduced attentional demands and use of reflexive (automatic) control mechanisms

Answer 72

Wulf, Zachry, Granados & Dufek able to jump higher (increased power) and kinematics showed made movements more efficient when told to focus externally (on rung rather than finger) found lower muscle activity with external focus (by using EMGs) which implies greater movement efficiency (Wulf, Dufek, Lozano & Pettigrew (2010))

Answer 73

``` movement effectiveness e.g in football kicking accuracy movement efficiency e.g in running levels of expertise age groups disabilities ```

Answer 74

external focus study told children to produce a 'C' when throwing football (limitation as may be implicit/analogy learning so may have been testing this instead and also instructions very different not just 1 word so may have been harder to understand etc. so confounding variables more likely) found better when external

Answer 75

better throwing accuracy when external focus important implications as good way of teaching movements

Answer 76

Wulf et al., 2009, found external group with parkisons had less amount of sway (balance issues) Fasoll et al., 2002, found stroke patients external group performed faster movement and more efficient when removing can from shelf and placing it on table

Answer 77

Wulf &a Kim, 2013 external focus led to X factor increase (stretch - good thing) and carry distance further so focus changing mechanics of movement performed

Answer 78

Zachry et al., 2005 internal (wrist) and external (basket - not result of movement so moving away from external focus towards something else e.g QET) greater accuracy in external group and more efficiency in movemet (less muscular activity shown by EMG)

Answer 79

external more efficient movement (less EMG activity), more accurate and faster movement

Answer 80

better performance by external ppts said aware of better performance when external focus brings up question of whether external focus is the preferred and go to focus and therefore when making people focus internally are we making them going against what they automatically do - external not better just internal worse

Answer 81

mere mention of performer's body provokes implicit, probably unconscious, access to the self this self-focus may lead to self-evaluation and activate self-regulatory processes - and result in 'micro-choking' episodes

Answer 82

internal - vibration on hand external - light on digital display (may have caused gaze behaviour to change so confounding) successful manipulation as attentional focus on ball less in internal and attention on grip much higher (self-report data) external were better - associated with more accurate performance and reduced conscious processing

Answer 83

external: more effective movements (balance and accuracy), greater automaticity (probe RT) and more economical movement patterns (less muscle activity and force production) benefits persist under pressure and across difference skills, groups, ages etc.

Answer 84

combination of attentional and intrinsic motivational factors which are important in performance outcomes effects rooted in dopamine responses to anticipation of positive experiences learner autonomy acts through an enhanced expectancy pathway

Answer 85

retention - skill performed in same condition as training either: - immediately (directly after training) - delayed (break from training, typically 1-7 days) transfer - skill performed in similar but different condition than training no specific time period

Answer 86

any activity, overt or covert, through which a person seeks to establish or refine intended performance

Answer 87

blocked: sequence in which single task or skill rehearsed repeatedly before moving onto next task repetitive movement with aim of creating consistent, effective technique AAABBBCCC serial: skills/tasks practiced in serial order ABCABCABC random: practice sequence where tasks/skills performed in a random order more difficult to see improvement found more efficient way to learn specific motor skill (Shea&Morgan) as more actively engaged in motor movements but forget short term solutions to movement so creating solutions (similar to when in competition) no pattern to it whatsoever

Answer 88

Henry, 1960 in order for learning and good performance to occur, the practice environment should be as close as possible to the performance environment so practice shouldn't be variable and instead sould be very specific to the conditions and ovement we want to replicate Proteau et al., 1992 - visual aiming task * conducted aiming task with no visual feedback (could only see hand/no hand) * found adding information reduced performace (those who couldn't see hand before and then being able to see hand) * suggesting what we learn and skills we develop is specific to training condition

Answer 89

schmidt, 1977 against specificity of learning theory: actions aren't stored as a whole, instead... we gather info from movement: - initial conditions - motor action charcateristics e.g how fast - results of action - sensory aspects relationships between this info used to create recognition (recognise movement)/recall schema so variable practice may be more beneficial as creating more info to be used to create schema

Answer 90

performer either alternates between different skills OR same skill in different conditions (variability controlled) coach then corrects movement errors very controlled manner: high - random order of trials of all task variations medium - random repetition of short blocks of trials of each task variation low - non-repeated blocks of trials of each task variation

Answer 91

random practice causes people to elaborate or discover the distinctiveness among skills (blocked practice does not) - fits really well with contextual interference theory beneficial for performance in a retention test

Answer 92

that learning occurs linearly and in this wayusually trained by minimising variability and correcting 'movement errors' however, low probability that athlete will encounter same movement condition twice due to changes in environment so suggests movement not just governed by 'central control' aspect but enviro as well motor learning may be aided by self-organisation

Answer 93

schollhorn et al., 2006 ecological approach to skill acquisition maximises/forces variability by preventing repetition (never completes same movement twice) so experiencing as many movements as possible uses stochastic resonance variation requires attention and adaptability challenges view that there is one target movement pattern that should be achieved (traditional learning theory) difference with contextual intereference theory in way it is enforced, variabiilty is forced and no movement completed twice so concept of correcting a movement not valid

Answer 94

trained in similar conditions to performance condition either could see target (basket) or everything only performed well when had same level of visual ability (full or obstructed) in both retention and delayed so skill performed best when conditions match same as effect of Proteau study but more sport specific

Answer 95

# define variable as pratice involving lots of skills and conditions define non-variable as block praticing and repeating certain skills/conditions issues: research shows variability of pratice improves transfer test results for skills BUT what do we want, to be able to transfer skill (e.g shooting from rugby to football environment) or master movement we want to learn? depends on motives ALSO how can coaches isolate an optimal movement pattern to judge which group performed better in studies e.g Michael Johnson leaning back but his optimal movement style

Answer 96

``` move arm to match target amount of force constant practice (specific), constant pratice with other forces in breaks (specific and variable) and specific + specific group which was constant practice with same force in breaks ``` but issues that specific and variable group had additional practice (made specific + specific group to counter this) all groups same at second retention but specific + variable group did best at first retention (where the benefits lie as alternating means can't gradualy develop skill and have to constantly adjust so at first retention can perform better, quicker) SHORT LIVED BENEFICIAL EFFECT suggesting constant practice more efficient (specific with least trials did better than with more trials and the same as specific + variable so more beneficial)

Answer 97

specific from certain range variable from different ranges (when shooting hoops in basketball) first trial specific and variable better then afterwards was the same (implicates specific more beneficial)

Answer 98

found that learning better with variable practice than constant and learning was implicit - preventing construction of specific rules

Answer 99

Shea & Morgan found transfer and retention both greater in high contextual intereference group effects most notable/beneificial for more complex tasks

Answer 100

blocked (one type of serve a day), serial (order of serve types) or random (no more than 2 serve types repeated consecutively) more effective for badminton serve? random better than blocked practice at retention and transfer

Answer 101

Hal, Domingues and Cavazos, 1994 random and blocked groups for batting pitch in baseball and control (no extra sessions) found that improvement greater in retention for random group even in experienced sportsmen issue: reliant on coach feedback - have subjective opinion about optimal movement pattern they view

Answer 102

same throw not produced twice depending on context e.g competition and weather also found large vairation in throwing techniques in javelin suggesting no optimum way of performing movement so how can we coach someone to produce optimum movement pattern?

Answer 103

performed whole movement but in permanently changing natural conditions 12 experienced football players very explicit instructions (traditional learning), blocked group (differential learning blocked) and differential learning random both differential groups improved more and no difference between them (it works) but very small sample size so benefits limited and not significant results instability promoting self-organisation of solutions - so should be better at adapting during competition (more skilled and efficient)

Answer 104

whether changing body position at start of race improves speed differential group - every skate started with different posture (no feedback) traditional group - taught 'ideal' posture (feedback regarding that posture) control - regular training at 25m no differences at 49m differential group had significantly faster time at post-test than both other groups (learnt to accelerate effeciciently from loads of different positions so more optimum movement efficiency) continue to improve even after training small sample (27 people)

Answer 105

bell shaped continuum of development of learning differential effect works differently in children and adults (children have to be reined in slightly when it comes to variance) performance peaks when using differential learning at top of bell

Answer 106

theorised that being part of exploratory environment and therefore at an increased subjectivity to movement variability, then creativity would increase 2 groups: differential learning group (focused on passing ability in variable conditions with no error correction) and control group DL group more successful in pass completion, behaviour of team improved relevant to game play - qualitative approach so relying on coach feedback

Answer 107

decided that these 2 approaches were basically 2 different names for the same phenomenon: variability of movement CI: elaboration of representation of motor programme (similar as any variability introduced in this way would create DL learning environ etc.) DL: exploration of movement space separated by structure of variability in practice conditions study 1: difference between DL having no error feedback but CI using error feedback traditional, DL and DL + feedback measuring distance from centre of traget no significant results between groups (can't say DL statistically better so not in concordance with Schollhorn's results) ``` study 2: difference between CI and DL with adding more or less variability in practice structured group (variability in order), traditional group and DL group structured learning group improved most in shotput throw but not significantly no benefits of DL over traditional, better suppoprt for contexual intereference theory (structured group better) ```

Answer 108

invited to write response as went against support for differential learning theory (his own theory so not subjective in his critique) didn't recognise theoretical differences between DL and CI so basis of study wrong 1. DL built on principle that no feedback given and no correct way to perform movement - (so how was there a DL group with feedback - study 1) 2. there are major differences between the 2 theories - which aren't recognised (only similarity is that both encourage variability of practice) 3. typically, blocked learning over random under contexual interference produces better performance at retention - but not the case in either of the studies 4. unable to reproduce previous findings - in study 1 due to age (children) as see more variability in movements of children compared to adults (bell curve) so more in traditional blocked design than adults, reducing ability for results to be significant 5. should train on alternate days for shotput group as opposed to consecutive group

Answer 109

learning manipulated in controlled way elaboration of representation of motor programme also, manipulations that increase CI also increase variability, leading to increased exploration which increases DL

Answer 110

forces athlete to experience high levels of variability in practice optimum level of noise (variability as too much stunts improvement) exploration of movement space Hossner suggests you can separate DL and CI by looking at structure of variability in practice but Schollhorn disagrees

Answer 111

take a particuar skill/tactic and isolates it in a game not given instructions put in constraints to limit amount of movement options in order for players to come up with their own movement solutions ecological approach centred around exploration and autonomy of players controlled practice design manipulated in very specific ways to bring about desired outcome linking whats going on in brain with whats going on in environment - discovery based not just controlled by mechanisms in brain, but nevertheless still needs to be thought about - self-organisation

Answer 112

1. how can we account for organisation/behaviour wihtou attributing it to an internal structure - what guides our ability to self-organise 2. how can we produce behaviours which are stable AND adaptive - consistent and responding to cues in enviro

Answer 113

1) alter player beh. 2) introduce fun & competitive games 3) help players find own solutions (need to give enough time and consider age of players) 4) tackle specific skills/aspects of games (with appropriate constraints so skill still looks like how it's supposed to)

Answer 114

Newell, 1986 - facilitating a particular type of behaviour through manipulation of the environment - actions emerge through self-organisation not central processor and limited by environmental constraints - constraints aren't barriers, they just define how you play by limiting certain movements to enable solutions to be created (good decision making) - constraints don't necessarily increase complexity e.g reducing number of people in a team - some are time dependent

Answer 115

Newell, 1986 3 types: - organism constraints - within you e.g maximum speed (some can be changed and only constraint in certain situations) - environmental constraints - conditions in which task performed de.g weather (can't be manipulated by coach) - task constraints 1. goals of task 2. rules of task 3. equiptment (don't control movements just limit them)

Answer 116

e.g swimmers imposed constraints for breaststroke by keeping arms under water thus limiting themselves

Answer 117

to understand process of constraints have to understand which info available from enviro and what parts of these influence our behaviours circular causality - perception doesn't cause movement and neither does movement cause perception interaction between them but not causal relationship

Answer 118

the way we can perform movement is dependent on perception-action cycle (link between them in constraints triangle evolution) have to understand perceptual info and... affordance - understanding own capabilities to perform a skill

Answer 119

Warren, 2006 performer and enviro linked together in coupled dynamic system and how they impact each other in past, present and future to create self-organisation of movement

Answer 120

performer, environment AND affordance (perceived capabilites) aspects: takes into account... amount of training received in focusing attention, directing intention, interaction of enviro and performer, biological degeneracy and high level cognition (effect but not control movement)

Answer 121

instead of having 2 players opposite each other be inside a square with defenders and have to decide where to pass and where to move - improves passing, decision making, movement etc. not just passing skill but still improving passing in game type situation

Answer 122

1. methods evaluating CLA different to typical learning measures as can't compare to normal curve due to encouraging individuals to come up with their own methods - largely qualitative data 2. very recent so limited amount of research available 3. unsure which constraints to use as have to be trained in very specific way and manipulate properly - need to understand which constraints have which effects on the performer

Answer 123

scaling equipment is a constraint in itself e.g if basketball hoop too high for age scaling equipment = making appropriate size etc. to cater for child's heights and ages found in general good evidence about effectiveness of scaling equipment e.g in tennis better accuracy and shots when ball altered also ore willing to engage in sport and continue it if equpment scaled so keep kids in sport long enough for them to improve and become really good limitations: however, longest study included 8 weeks - not very long for learning effects not compared to those using non-scaled equipment do benefits continue when equipment full size or does it limit them when transitioning into this use qualitative data from coaches and out of context of game

Answer 124

may be a means to implicit learning as: - encourages autonomy and to find our own solutions without being told rules - similar to errorless learning as constraining options to enable more successful movements (limiting errors) - found when using scaled equipment (constraint), dual task not a problem, so reduces load and attentional demands however: - wouldn't give someone a dual task in CLA context - IL theories cite central governor in brain for performance

Answer 125

whether changing weight of bat (to be heavier) in skilled basketball players changed task constraint adapted in different way and speed based on affordance and individual constraints e.g physically stronger adapted movements by swinging with more force whereas physically weaker adapted movement by changing timing led to longer term change in swing movements

Answer 126

small sided games (fewer players, limited area etc.) supported as being a constraint by: - specific drills only useful for creating movement patterns in highly constrained environment (dribbling round cones not necessarily players), whereas small sided games provides skills important in real game-play - stabalises parameters of e.g distance between attackers and defenders or player preferrences so developing dynamic team approach and cohesive unit and team organisation - become better attuned to using perceptual information to guide movements - makes training more fun

Answer 127

manipulated size of pitch and number of players used notational analysis - watch video and record certain actions e.g number of shots on goal (quantitative but lends itsef to subjectivity so important for same person to do it all) found lower density of players (reduced number) led to significant increase in successful passes and increased number of challenging situations players had to face number of players made more difference than density (how much space they had) good at regulating interactions between team mates suggested should change numbers and people involved to enrich skills

Answer 128

scaling changed at each level depending on ability e.g compresion of ball, net height, how game scored 48 ppts used notational analysis found players adapted to situations really well and had more robust skills

Answer 129

dysfunctional when in competition as either given penalty or score of 0 if abort dive (baulk) baulking means not able to explore variability of movements which are associated with that approach to the dive 4 divers engaged in programme encouraged to never baulk unless dangerous found ppts completed more dives and baulked less than previously and greater consistency in diving scores and greater variability in movements (due to exploring movement patterns more) showing increasing variability as a good thing (differs to many other approaches)

Answer 130

``` herding condition (had to follow paired opponent & 2 scoring zones) non-herding condition (weren't paired & 4 scoring zones) ``` higher clustering behaviour in herding condition and more herding behaviour so changing rules can increase/decrease herding but didn't look at whether long term and when rules eliminated if herding stays decreased

Answer 131

3 groups: internal focus group - technique and movements of limbs external focus - focus external to body constraint group - barrier put across field which they had to hit ball over (constraint - ball had to be hit with launch angle over 20 degrees and moved depending on success) goal to help batters learn own way of performing better batting angle as used group with low (sub-optimal) launch angle used VAR as incorrect feedback about launch angle if in batting cage found CLA group had greater accuracy and angle, higher speed of ball (not trained but still developed) - low variability at start - high during (exploring movement options during training - low at end external group next best and internal worst

Answer 132

the processing of sensory input (NOTE not detection or management)

Answer 133

a relatively permanent change in behaviour (not covert characteristics) brought about by practice or experience

Answer 134

Masters et al., 2005 conscious motor processing and movement self-consciousness

Answer 135

deliberate practice = purposeful practice methods (specific goal, intense focus, immediate feedback and frequent discomfort by operating on edge of abilities) leading to creating effective mental representations for information + expert coaching (+early specialisation is key) 'the right sort of practice carried out over a sufficient period of time will lead to improvement, nothing else will' - so disputes the 10 000 hours if practice not effective found this out by giving student a number of random numbers to learn and increased by 1 when got it right but decreased by 2 when wrong. Got stuck at 7 numbers for ages (upper bound of his ability) but breakthrough when developed effective mental representations to remember the numbers - suggesting no limit on performance

Answer 136

1. early specialisation - deliberate practice (Ericsson et al.) e.g gymnastics in order to get our 10 000 hours in 2. early engagement - single sport deliberate pratice and play (Ford et al.) - but arguably don't pick our sport under 10 and instead find which one we like later on 3. late specialisation/early diversification - deliberate play (Cote et al.)

Answer 137

'definite limit to the muscular powers of every man, which he cannot by any education or exertion overpass' - traditional view that make gains, then plateau - power law so disagrees with Ericsson suggesting no limit on performance when deliberate practice

Answer 138

- improve with practice - improvement goes beyond point of physical maturity using training (becoming fitter & stronger as you get older) - true across diverse skill domain e.g sport and working memory

Answer 139

- expertise accomplished via motivation, concentraion and willingness to work (through deliberate practice) - innate talent unimportant when compared to their attained abilities and skills - no objective evidence for high intial level of performance without any relevant experience or practice nor abrupt improvement of reproducible performance when regularly tested

Answer 140

activities invented with primary purpose of attaining and improving skills - individualised designed by coach to improve specific aspects of performance through repetition - have to monitor training with full concentration (effortful so limits duration of daily training) NOT activities for which learning may be an indirect result

Answer 141

amount and type of practice 10 000 hours of deliberate practice however, monotonic assumption suggesting 1st hour makes as much difference as 9999th hour

Answer 142

1. activity specifically designed to improve performance, with help of coach 2. activity can be repeated a lot - and over space of 10 years 3. feedback on results continuously available 4. mentally highly demanding 5. not much fun 'practice always effortful but not inherently enjoyable'

Answer 143

have to continually modify levels of task difficulty so that it matches current performance levels - prevent plateaus (arrested development) - perpetuate adaptation to higher levels of training stress leading to higher levels of performance

Answer 144

general adaptations syndrome - Selye 1. shock - must adapt to training stress 2. adaptation - re-attain homeostasis 3. staleness - positive adaptations are no longer made periodisation important - balance of training and recovery

Answer 145

looked at differences between professional, best, good and least accomplished expert violinists and amaterus 10-18 years old key period in determining whether very good or not by continually increasing hours instead of doing same number over the years found only 10 000 hour mark hit by best experts and professionals and longest hours a week e.g at 20 doing 30 hours as opposed to 25 by best students 10 000 hours may be specific to violin players?

Answer 146

rough trend with figure skating and violin highest and soccer and hockey lowest

Answer 147

20h per week for 13y/o tennis players 24-30h per week for swimmers by 11y/o maths: 20h a week (made up of physical and technical training) for 50 weeks for 10 years = 10 000 hours

Answer 148

not constrained by what we're born with and instead by how much work we put in intrinsic motivation key (may not occur when parents choose sport for you as motivated to please parents instead) which perhaps comes about from autonomy of choice have to find appropriate challenge point

Answer 149

nearly impossible to get longitudinal study as can't separate groups for 10 years and get half to do deliberate practice and other half not instead have to rely on projective measures by asking elite and non-elite athletes how many hours they practiced a year etc. but obvious problem that not able to accuretly recall the amount of hours they were doing at each age also, unsure as to whether deliberate practice is key variable distinguishing experts vs non-experts also, suggested that actually 5000 hours of sport specific skills (deliberate practice) and 5000 of other skills such as fitness (not deliberate practice)

Answer 150

1. motivation - to improve performance (not enjoyment) 2. resources - finances, parents time etc. 3. effort - attention in training and balance between effortful training and rest (periodisation)

Answer 151

experts spend more time engaging in activities that are specifically related to sports performance suggests deliberate practice explictly linked to skill development

Answer 152

2014 - deliberate practice important but not as important as previously thought 2017 - deliberate practice accounting for 18% of sporting performance at all levels BUT only 1% of variance in performance in elite athletes accounted for by deliberate practice - really that important?

Answer 153

ancestors in slave trade transport really awful conditions so to survive had to be genetically really strong and healthy - these are the ancestors of the current population of jamaica so have very good genetics leading to very good sprinting performance cultural element - lots of support for sprinters but less so for other sports (same in other countries e.g Kenya and long-distance athletes)

Answer 154

suggests deliberate practice helps but also have to have good genes to reach top level

Answer 155

world record holder - used up most of potential through training but another athlete, not maximising training despite innate ability being greater than current world record holder so potential to be better

Answer 156

3000 hours 23 600 hours some practiced for 25 000 and not experts so seems hours not as important

Answer 157

28% of elite athletes in one study had participated for less than 4 years in their sports were quick learners who had played 3 or more sports before settling on the main one

Answer 158

* all forms of training might consititute deliberate practice * what is actual content of deliberate practice * do we need 10 years of practice as may lead to burnout from early specialisation * able to make it fun otherwise may make excuses to get out of sport * should consider transferable skills from other sports? * level of coaching received depending on level of performance you are at * lack of social life so social isolation

Answer 159

- Cote et al, 2007 - highlights importance of developmentally appropriate physical training patterns and psycho-social influences - identifies 2 pathways towards expertise in sport: early specialisation & early diversification - 3 stage trajectory towards elite and recreational performance: 1. sampling years (6-12) - lots of deliberate play 2. specialising years (13-15) - still playing several sports but balanced level of deliberate practice and play 3. investment years (16+) - choose 1 sport and high proportion of deliberate practice

Answer 160

early specialisation: - focus ondeliberate practice - early intro to specialised skills - high concentration - less emphasis on enjoyment - high adult involvement - singe sport - player drop out - more at risk of injuries as stressing certain parts of body (reduced physical health) and burn-out diversification: - high amount of deliberate play - modified rules positive skill development - increased player involvement - enjoyable experiences - little adult involvement - sample a variety of sports - increased player retention (not dropping out) - able to find sport thats more enjoyable and most talented in

Answer 161

does early diversification help or hinder participation diversification linked to longer sporting career if diversification gives more positive developmental experience high amounts of deliberate play increases intrinsic motivation deliberate play establishes range of motor and cognitive skills should children have opportunity to specialise at 12 have late adolescents developed range of skills needed to invest effort into highly specialised training in one sport

Answer 162

deliberate: elite athletes: specialise in main sports earlier and start DP earlier and accumulate more dp hours DMSP: sample various sports, greatre amounts of deliberate play during childhood more deliberate practice than play in teenage and adult years

Answer 163

trying lots of different sports as opposed to specialising in 1 provides good foundation of cognitive, motor and perceptual skills to use later in specialised sport (Baker, Cote & Abernathy, 2003) - especially good decision making (Berry et al, 2008)

Answer 164

NO in early-maturation sports e.g gymnastics and figure-skating YES in most other sports as peak performance occurs after athlete fully matured so diversification doesn't make difference in that respect improves decision making so especially good in sports requiring these skills

Answer 165

experts had more practice after 12 y/o than non-experts and had more additonal activities but dropped off number after age of 12 even at age 5 do 3 and 1/2 vs 2 and 1/2 activities per week

Answer 166

very few in primary school few in high school but mostly in either college or later (beyond age of 18) 10-14 3/4 different sports being played and only reduced between 19-22 winter sports even tended to have more than one at 19-22

Answer 167

engaging in variety of sports promotes long-term sport participation Law et al, 2007 found Olympic gymnasts rated health and enjoyment as lower than international

Answer 168

more sports = more socialising and friends Wright & Cote, 2003 found uni students related to more positive peer relationships and leadership skills when had diversified sporting experiences important contributor to physical, cognitive, social and emotional development

Answer 169

pos: challenge, relationships, community neg: poor coach relationships and player relationships

Answer 170

engaged in fewer extra-curricular activities reached develpomental milestones earlier more likely to have athlete parents youngest in training group less likely to have best friend within that sport

Answer 171

``` movement (biomechanical actions), perceptual skills (info), conceptual skills (strategic and rules regarding performance) and physical conditioning (physiological adaptations across similar modes of training) ```

Answer 172

in some ways like sampling : doing what you want to do in different sports activities which are: intrinsically motivated (due to being self-directed and designed by kids), immediate gratification and designed to maximise enjoyment e.g street football adapted rules to maximise enjoyment and suit the game development of motor and cognitive skills through experimental learning

Answer 173

most important was intrinsic love of activity, followed by sport early success parental influence coach and peer recruitment decreased as got older: U10 - over 3 15-18 - 2 19-22 - less than 2

Answer 174

explore physical capabilities in various contexts and at minimal cost - generate new skills - adapt to novel and uncertain situations Berry et al, 2008 - found exceptional decision-makers had engaged in more deliberate play in invasion style games as kids Soberlak and Cote, 2003 - found over 1/3 of time spent playing ice-hockey was deliberate play, more than deliberate practice

Answer 175

Coakley & Pike, 2009 children interested in 4 things 1. action, especially involving scoring 2. personal involvement in action 3. close score (so challenging contest) 4. opportunities to reaffirm friendships during game

Answer 176

important period for development of identity and competence reduction in no. of activities increase in practice time / intensity increased emphasis on competition more support provided by family and friends

Answer 177

children should specialise and invest in this training as between 16-20 56% of total practice time in that sport occurs can make independent decison about benefits and costs of intense focus required

Answer 178

pros of early specialisation: - getting closer to 10 000 hours promotes confidence in the sport - better for early maturation sports like gymnastics and figure skating cons of early specialisation: - world champions with much less than 10 000 hours of practice so not essential to be an elite athlete - if not enjoying your sport, for example forced into it by your parents, at an early age then more likely to drop out - poor for your mental health as lots of pressure and reduced social life and missing out on other opportunities pros of early diversification: - promotes intrinsic motivation - able to find the sport that you're best at instead of forced into one sport - transferable skills across sports - deliberate play is more accessible to more people and doesn't require lots of equiptment or commitment cons of early diversification: - might not reach 10 000 hours

Answer 179

1 in 100 make it as a pro so just exposing young kids to lots of pressure and failure not developing children for life outside of sport as in tier 1 are full-time at academies e.g schooling, psychology and training so no skills for when they don't make it if only looking up to 8 y/o then may miss players who became better later on and how to tell if athlete going to be elite as young as 5

Answer 180

lots of money when spot a player and sell them academies governed by FA so have to have certain amount fo training etc. in some academies, banned from playing any other sport but in others they are allowed (limiting transferable skills)

Answer 181

1. practice - formal activity with aim of improving performance 2. competition - formal activity with aim of winning matches (not as fun as if deliberate play) 3. play - informal activity with aim of fun/enjoyment

Answer 182

professional - 9332 (partial support for Ericcson but obviously professional players would have more practice as they are paid and it is their job to do so semi-professional - 7449 amateur - 5079

Answer 183

engage early but also doing playful activities and specialising later on supporting Cote's model also found differences between those who made it (pros) in football from academies and those who didn't used participation history questionnaire to test engagement in football specific activities and in other sports to test early engagement and later specialisation - issues with this as having to rememeber back to when very young and hours in very specific categories small sample size difference found that those kept on generally started playing football a year earlier and lots more activity hours when younger (play&practice) 100h extra combined - so in line with Ericcson's work and in support of academy existence all played lots of sports in childhood

Answer 184

found that mix of different pathways in england was the highest number of sports played 328 16 y/o elite football players across 7 countries (much bigger and more diverse sample than Williams and Ford study) started later in academies in Brazil but earlier in portugal generally 5 y/o when started playing and around 11 years when joined elite scheme and after 10 years around 4550 hours of football played lots of sports played e.g basketball and athletics only 132 played 2 other sports in adolescence compared to around 229 in childhood

Answer 185

asked youth football coaches what went on in practice lots of drill activities for skills - means not coaching other skills e.g cognitive decision-making which are equally important to match play due to hard to get coaches to listen to you as have to communicate info in a way they will understand to translate research appropriately as not aware of it want the biggest retunr for the least amount of time and change so what can be manipulated easily without much alteration

Answer 186

better perceptual cognitive expertise when playing football specific activities

Answer 187

``` Low et al, 2013 combined 69% training form 19% playing form 12% on transitions ``` recreational 50% playing form elite 0% playing form (imitating match play)

Answer 188

current model for elite young players childhood - meaningful amounts of practice - meaningful amounts of sport specific play activity - low amounts of other sports adolescence - large amounts of soccer practice - reduced play activity - amount of competition activity increases - deliberate practice now used to further improve performance (beyond plateau)

Answer 189

2012 london - 9m per gold medal 2008 beijing - 12.36m per gold medal athletes are doing better but sports participation is down suggesting inspiring not taking place

Answer 190

may have an effect but can't do much about it at the moment HERITAGE study - Bouchard influence of genetic factors on health and disease risk VO2 max and responsivity to training stimulus is genetically constrained regardless of training COL5A1 gene - flexibility of ligaments/tendons predisposition to injury of these VDR - (vitamin D receptor) associated with strength/power ACE - endurance and strength/power ACTN3 gene - restricting capabiity to be elite at 100m as for power largest genetic advantage is the presence of Y-chromosome (male) e.g 9.2% difference in the marathon between men and women (records)

Answer 191

discovery and observation of talent in a specific sport 1. talent selection 2. talent detection 3. talent transfer

Answer 192

the process whereby talented athletes are selected from WITHIN their sport based on their performance, physical and physiological testing and based on coaches expert opinions on their skill, technique, attitude and potential the most used method but not shown to be particularly successful

Answer 193

deselection of an athlete who will make it (type 2) - under-utlisation of talent pool and tends to lead to complete de-selection from any sports due to becoming disillusioned which has implications for health issues in society selection of an athlete who won't make it (type 1) - very expensive in time and resources select athlete who would make it but error of action where don't develop them properly to enable them to reach best potential

Answer 194

involves recruiting athletes from OUTSIDE the sport who have physical and physiological attributes associated with success at the high performance level in that sport transferable specific skills

Answer 195

1. identify talent - identify key performance factors e.g aerobic capacity - validate tests (baseline of national team athletes) - quick tests (lots can do quickly) - not sport specific (raw talent) 2. coach this talent to win medals easier to do this for physiological based than skill based sports in this programme, 12 have been selected to represent GB at london 2012 (25% of squad taken) so 2000 people have been tested to find one olympian - 9 centres surrounded by schools so easily accessible etc. each with a talent development coach and performance development coach (coach to athlete 1:6-8) - high level of training - regular testing camps - continual comparison to world best times

Answer 196

all top marathon times made by kenyans from a certain tribe have shared genes e.g long legs and good at high altitude also, culture influences as aware that they have the capabiities based on other people's successes from that country

Answer 197

outstanding mastery of developed abilties or skills and knowledge in at least 1 field of human activity to a degree that places an individual among the top 10% of age peers who are or have been active in that field

Answer 198

static - disposition to perform well - motivation to perform well - social enviro to help them to perform well - current results that are outstanding in camparison to peers dynamic - develop actively - in an active pedagogical accompanied change process - tranied intentionally for later peak performance

Answer 199

two issues: - best predictors of intial task performance are not usually the same as the best determinants of final task performance - distinction between what characterises a champion and the qualities required to become a champion (assessing current athletes doesn't tell us which characteristics they possessed when younger to get them there, only what they had at present)

Answer 200

natural abiities skill sets multi-dimensional performance characteristics: - anthropometric (height/weight) - physiological (aerobic/anaerobic capacities) but only trainable up to a certain point so natural ability given from genes - technical (dribbling) - tactical (appreciation of space/perceptual) - psychological (resilience/personality)

Answer 201

process of identifying athletes with extensive and adaptable training backgrounds and transferable skills assists them in transitioning and succeeding in a sport with comparable athlete profile e.g physical, skill components required etc. - most cost effective and efficient way of developing talent - most successful one when used amongst olympians e.g out of 12 divers in athens olympics, 10 started in gymnastics

Answer 202

76% of players selected for u13 tournament didn't play in u18 tournament numbers playing went from 349 (identified as talented at their age) to 84, showing early identification not a very good method in identifying top level performers at a young age

Answer 203

found that structured programmes in adolescence not associated with better sucess in elite sport

Answer 204

ice hockey and swimming started really young sports like softball started at over 16 years of age the age of starting doesn't really influence your future ability in the sport just matters that playing any sport from a young age, not the one specific to future

Answer 205

rost et al, 1989 - 131 selected at 10 and within 2 years, group reduced to 32 gullich et al, 2005 11 287 members of elite sport schools only 1.7% of former members got a medal in a senior competition

Answer 206

recycling - if not sucessful in one sport then move onto another 1. second chance opportunities 2. improved chance of success 3. increased return on investment - money not necessarily lost if succeed at another sport 4. reduced uncertainty - feel better if know if unsuccessful can transfer across to another sport

Answer 207

- highly motivated and goal oriented as want to succeed enough to move sports - accomplished in current sport - great self-management skills - good work ethic - proven performer in competition environments - no bad technical habits

Answer 208

``` leisure local club regional club state level (only here can predict whether will make it to national level so not necessarily linear progression) national club ```

Answer 209

found those who succeeded in their sports had no more practice in their domain sport than those who didn't suceed - no evidence for superiority of early specialisation varied paths to the top only difference that had much more experience in other sports benefits of variability: - experience more stimuli to develop learning - able to try more to see what better at - exposed to different opportunities for problem solving

Answer 210

no, much more support for talent transfer and variability of taking part in lots of sports

Answer 211

1. birthdate - relative age effect as over representation of those born at start of year not a consistent effect though and may disappear/reverse by the elite level and have longer careers 2. genetics - explained 20-80% of variance at non-elite level and heritability component of e.g throwing, agility, RT etc. heritable but reversible - gene expression (can be affected by enviro e.g mothers activity levels may affect activity levels of children which changes gene expression and in funcitonal adaptation to changing) effect not if but which (definitely do have an effect on performance) 3. anthropometric and physiological factors - height, weight, VO2 max, (an)aerobic capacity use limited by: individual variability in growth and instability of physiology in adolescence biological maturation looked at instead 4. psychological skills and motivational orientations - more successful athletes display e.g higher levels of motivation and perceived control, reater resistance to choking and range of mental skills elite athletes: self-determined motivation and extrinsic and base competence perceptions on personal improvements 5. personality traits - greater conscientiousness, optimism and adaptive perfectionism

Answer 212

test used in combine to assess aptitude for learning and problem-solving in wide range of occupations score of 20 indicates average intelligence but from other professions average score is 24 but e.g in chemsit 31 higher scorers: learn more rapidly, master more complex material and exercise better judgement lower scorers: need more time, detailed instruction and less challenging job routines highest scores seen in offensive tackle and quarterback whereas lowest for full and halfback but no evidence that this test provides an indication of the standard of the player

Answer 213

1. birthplace - populations between 10-30000 more likely to produce olympic athletes in uk and areas more than this are disadvantaged and better when educated in small village e.g more attention to you if good, better behaved students, fewer distractions from sport etc. but to do with where you're born or where you develop? 2. support progammes (not particularly effective) - success at junior level does not predict success at elite level earlier admittance to these programmes leads to earlier exit of the sport super-elite are recruited to support programmes at later than elite (so support programmes not helping) 3. support from family and coaches - crucial in developmental years and coaches can enhance development of psychological skills and mental toughness

Answer 214

experience of a negative life event coupled with positive sport related event need for success importance of sport over other aspects diversified sporting experiences ruthlessness in pursuit of sporting goals better performance under pressure * most predictive of success: adversity in early life at same time of successful period during their sport which might link to the Relative Age Effect and showing resilience * but not causation between negative life experience and sporting success as retrospective study - so not a predictor - but might enable choice between 2 similarly matched athletes

Answer 215

converting natural abilities into specific choreographed skills

Answer 216

1. detection 2. identification - those going to be good 3. confirmation - through testing 4. selection 5. development - easy to see what it looks like on paper but harderin practice

Answer 217

1) refine skill acquisition 2) interpret biological e.g bio-banding (play against maturation levels not age) and cog maturation 3) monitor physiological training loads - young athletes vulnerable to stress injuries during growth spurts so development may occur through e.g occlusion paradigms instead, includes being sensitive to key developmental transitions 4) sensitive of over-reaching 5) improve tactical decision making 6) keep athletes motivated through achievable but challenging training 7) identify new cohorts of talent - reductions in P.E - very unspecialised teachers in P.E

Answer 218

developed for education - characterises development of top 10% - still very relevant to sport development process described as transformation of gifts into talent - looking for gifted athletes not talent (turned into this) - through processes of maturation, learning, training and practice DP (giftedness) influenced by 3 catalysts - 1. intrapersonal - individual characteristics e.g learn-ability 2. environmental - e.g location, supportive parents etc. 3. chance - e.g whether spotted by scout, replace someone with injury, never get injured - very big factor as all characteristics possessed, we have by chance interaction of intrapersonal, developmental, environmental and chance factors to form talented individual differentiates giftedness (constituent elements/potential) and talent (end product/accomplishment) more of a heavy focus on talent identification not development

Answer 219

emphasises importance of psychological characteristics e.g doggedness - not wanting to give up

Answer 220

capacity of child to develop their psychological skills and characteristics - e.g have to have perseverance, perform under pressure, make sacrifices no point on focusing on models, have to focus on what happens in practice and how does it work again, retrospective stages: 1. sampling - athlete identity developed 2. specialising - sport prioritised 3. investment - world class performance at senior level 4. maintenance - consistent world class performance

Answer 221

growth mindset - understanding that your abilities can be developed , effort worthwhile, challenges embraced, getting things wrong is positive engaged with error through brain activation, aiming to correct it when taught to adopt this mindset, showed sharp increase in maths grades compared to drop in controls - transform meaning of effort and difficulty to mean greater learning possibilities fixed mindset - ability fixed, effort seen as fruitless, challenges avoided and getting something wrong negative running from difficulty as shown from no brain activity when made error, so running not engaging with it get away from this by praising processes not just success/failure e.g in maths to encourage resilience, more effort and perserverance in line with Ericson's theory of deliberate practice but also includes attitudes and evaluations

Answer 222

growth - more likely to engage with challenges and keep going through set backs perceive success as improving - need to emphasise this in development programmes so should develop this mindset in sporting sphere as can be changed fixed - often with successful junior athletes as when faced with actual opposition, haven't learnt how to deal with it perceive success when don't make mistakes and don't fail so always looking for confirmation of abilities externally as can't generate on your own transform failed action to 'i am a failure' and instead need this to be altered to 'how can i succeed next time'

Answer 223

origins in education - all her papers on her website looked at who was successful and perserverent in different challanging domains - biggest predictor of this was grit: passion and perserverance for the long-term, marathon not sprint e.g significantly more likely to graduate if matched on everything other than 'grit' 2007 talent doesn't = grit as talented individuals don't always stick with it, may actually be inversely proportional develop grit through growth mindset (Dweck) - not believing failure is a permanent talent x effort = skill skill x effort = achievement so effort (grit) is key e.g Ronaldo

Answer 224

ability to withstand and perform under pressure, keep working, and overcome problems develops through interaction of individual and environment (often under studied) good enviro for resilience has balance between challenge and support : - high challenge but low support = unrelenting - high support but low challenge = comfortable - high + high = facilitative (safe to make and learn from mistakes and risks, aiming for feedback, competitiveness used for positive so helps to develop resilience)

Answer 225

way we deal with setbacks which creates opportunity to succeed without them, don't learn how to become successful traumas occuring in childhood often seen in elite athletes as enables them to develop resilience and grit BUT also opposite where traumas lead to problems in later life

Answer 226

resilience - important thing is to evaluate what can be learnt from mistakes grit/growth mindset - developing strategies to succeed both agree that have to learn from both success and failure - learn from good and bad points

Answer 227

found adverse experience can be stimulus for future success when difficulty e.g injury, missed selection, and drop in progression, then had massive improvement straight after - example of development in response to challenge if always succeeding then will never learn to overcome mistakes and how to grow as not challenged ethical implications for application of this research as can't add an element of trauma into childhood sport - instead just create a challenging enviro with opportunity to fail so can push limits without traumatising them - for gifted individuals, might need more challenging environments than being provided at that age level - give psychological skills to get over hardships and use challenge to develop

Answer 228

1. motivation - desire to improve 2. self-belief - confidence despite challenges and maintain their own (growth mindset) 3. focus on goals 4. attribute successful performances to their own work ethic 5. recognise strengths and weaknesses 6. good level of social support 7. application of learning

Answer 229

19% | as PE first subject to be dropped for better acadmeic grades

Answer 230

less playground and park spaces less time for parental supervision most sport therefore played in organised settings so if there is to be competition, to make it appropriate, make it fun

Answer 231

successful individuals continually learned from experiences had and set-backs e.g being sent to another club on loan looked at developmental, environmental stressors, bodily stressors, psychological states, damaging behaviours as set backs and traumas not to do with differences in amount of trauma (hinted at in great british medallist projects) but in differences in how dealt with the trauma i.e in a more positive way, developing resilience etc.

Answer 232

1. teach psychological skills to cope with traumas 2. use constructive challenges to use these skills developed, as opposed to introducing actual trauma into child's lives 3. refine these skills to deal with challenges better 4. give more challenges, etc.

Answer 233

Psychological Characteristics of Developing Excellence Questionnaire questions regarding: 1. support for long-term success 2. imagery use during practice and competition - debatable as some people don't have this ability 3. coping with performance and developmental pressures - set-backs 4. ability to organise and engage in quality practice 5. evaluating performances and working on weaknesses 6. support from others to compete to my potential

Answer 234

some in common found in their sample: competitiveness, commitment, vision of what taking to succedd (as opposed to goal setting), imagery, working on weaknesses, coping under pressure (common), game awareness, self-belief found in the literature: motivation, commitment, goal setting, quality practice, imagery, realistic performance evaluation, coping under pressure and social skills

Answer 235

introducing kids to rugby, shaping the game, retaining players and developing talent 6 counties identified 5 themes from interviews with coaches: enjoyment, deliberate play, late specialisation skills, multi-sport participation, appropriate adult involvement proposing smaller, tag rugby for younger age groups, 4v4 (U7&8), for U9 introduced the tackle, U10, the scrum and 8v8, for U11 the lineout previously: U7&8 - tag 7v7 and U9 - tackle, scrum, lineout, 9v9 etc. FINDINGS twice as many successful passes and tries, more ball in play and more runs with the ball, more successful tackles in U9 when implementing these changes as compared to the traditional rules opinions didn't change much though e.g tackling most important followed by passing - therefore, this pilot is now being implemented in practice, for safety, enjoyment, more skilled players etc. - despite the issues of quality of coaches/their education and winning hearts and minds of others debate as to whether tackling should be taught younger - to learn how to do it properly or older - to minimise injury when younger

Answer 236

sport becoming more professional and competitive may increase risk of burn-out, injuries and health problems should avoid early specialisation and early diversification and sampling of many sports

Answer 237

1. children do need coaching as skills won't develop on their own 2. practice conditions need to be flexible and versatile 3. compare to use being taught how to read and write and same thing weith sport - need to be taught

Answer 238

WHAT - grouping players based on attributes associated with growth and maturation - rather than age - so optimal environment for different maturation levels to thrive - not suppressed by lack of physicality when not matured and able to develop technical ability when more matured practical applicaiton of literature on Relative Age Effect WHY - when more matured, can place more emphasis on physical attributes and less on technical attributes of the game - deceives coaches as not able to show that technically gifted if not matured yet, indeed poor prediction of success of early maturation in later success HOW - need variety of oppositions to maximise abilities, so not just bio-banding and not just age groups WHO - used in majority of premier league youth academies

Answer 239

matured players found these games more challenging (in a good way) less matured had more opportunities to develop technical abilities and display these to others providing more equal setting for both levels of maturation to thrive

Answer 240

DL 1. no movement repeated 2. no error correction as ovement is self-directed (no coach involvement) 3. no ideal movement pattern 4. exploration based learning CI 1. performer alternates between skills (some repitition will occur) 2. coach corrects errors 3. ideal movement pattern 4. Controlled manipulation of the learning environment

Answer 241

experts have an increased ability to detect relative info in the enviro e.g Ronaldo not requiring visual info (when lights turned off) to score SO the ability to correctly anticipate movements is a characteristic of expertise use anticipation to deal with the time constraints of skilled performance through prediction of future movements, thus enabling time for correct movement response tested using occlusion paradigms

Answer 242

temporal - removes info at certain time points before and after event from internal perspective e.g as if you're the goalie - differentiates when experts and non-experts able to predict outcome - doesn't tell you exactly what info is used to predict outcome - WHEN NOT WHAT spatial/event - removes specific aspects of environmental information (could wear occlusion goggles for this) - tells use which info used to make decisions - tells us which info experts need to anticipate the movement outcome - WHAT NOT WHEN usually conducted using video paradigms used to identify which aspects of info experts/non-experts use to inform their movements e.g where goalkeepers look during a penalty and when and allows comparisons between different skill levels