essay plan for anticipation

Question 1

the use of occlusion paradigms to identify differences in anticipation and to improve it?

Answer 1

what is anticipation and why is it important?

temporal occlusion - williams and burwitz goalkeeping difference in experts as earlier accurate predictions, implications for training or when and where to look

event - counters limitation of what being looked at

• found that arm and racquet in shuttlecock destination guess (Abernethy and Russel) for experts
• limitations of distortion of cues or being able to extract same info from somewhere else (not natural game play)

in combination

• muller et al, 2006 using liquid crystal glasses to do both types of occlusion, finding better use of specific and general info, earlier on in battsmen
• muller et al, 2009 supported through in situ study using striking of the ball and movements as signs of prediction of outcome, as opposed to relying on the translational validity of small screens with no audio and verbal predictions

application of findings:
also found that experts may be better due to training anticipation more through videos and similar sports and game play
also finding that in child and adults and experienced vs not so experienced, that training using info from occlusion based on where to look or using occlusion itself, improves anticipation (faster decision-making times) and actual batting average in experienced

can mention how can use this information to deceive others based on knowing what they will use to antcicipate e.g kit reducing availability of cues from the hips to determine kick direction in penalties (Causer & Williams, 2015)

Question 2

paragraph 1?

could split into 3 depending on the question asked

Answer 2

why is anticipation important and what are the different measures of it?

anticipation is being able to recognise the outcome of the others’ actions before they have been executed (Broadbend et al, 2015)

anticipation has been cited as a characteristic distinguishing experts and non-experts, as experts are able to utilise it to combat the inherent time constraints that competition places on perceiving and acting (Abernethy et al, 2012)

measured in 1 of 2 ways to differentiate between experts and non - experts better earlier and at utilising certain cues

1. temporal occlusion - see footage and is stopped at certain time points prior to and after the action occurs, then subject required to predict the outcome either verbally or through actions

e. g Williams & Burwitz, 1993 - found that experienced goalkeepers had much better anticipation of ball destination before the ball was kicked, but this effect decreased during and after it was kicked
- indeed they then used this information to train individuals to improve anticipation through attending to certain areas e.g initial height of ball after kick (which links to the later paragraph on using findings to aid anticipation)

2. event occlusion - deals with the limitation of temporal in that it only tells you when and not what differentiates expert anticipation
   - watch footage which limits vision of specific cues to determine which are important for anticipation of outcome
   - Abernethy & Russel, 1987 found that in predicting shuttlecock destination, the racquet and arm were important anticipatory cues for experts, as shwon through increase in prediction error when these were occluded, suggesting experts know where to look to pick up relevant information
   - limitations of removal of cue may distort image leading to inaccurate prediction (not critical just distorting) and cue may be critical but when removed able to get same info from others which wouldn’t normally do (Broadbendt et al, 2015)

Question 3

paragraph 2?

Answer 3

to combat limitations to both methods, they have been successfully used in conjunction:

Muller et al, 2006 - used liquid crystal glasses to temporally and event occlude batsmen, found that experts were better able to pick up information from advanced general and advanced specific cues, suggesting better information extraction form cues available and of information presented earlier - so shows which cues important and when they’re important

supported by similar findings in situ (Muller et al, 2009) - striking the ball and foot movements were measures of actual performance when occluding goggles worn
this is instead of relying on the translational validity of predictions to actual performance and the loss of audio and the video being on a small screen

Question 4

paragraph 3?

Answer 4

the translation of research into training anticipation in sport:

• can help reduce temporal and event uncertainty by coaching players to notice relevant cues sooner

for example: found that experts in various team sports spent more time doing activities seen to be most effective in developing these skills (video training and time in competition) (Baker et al, 2003) and found that experts also spent more time doing similar but not sport-specific activities, suggesting anticipation may be increased through activities with translational characteristics to one’s sport (Berry et al, 2008)
- more anticipation improving activities (more of a focus in training) and similar activities which will foster anticipation in experts

using training to improve anticipation in different groups (adultsvschildren, expertsvsnovice)

• groups of child tennis players trained to anticipate certain cues using occlusion videos had better anticipation, as shwon through faster decision-making times (than controls), implicating utility of these paradigms in training perceptual cognitive expertise (Smeeton et al, 2005) - less experienced so can improve those with less skill and children
• training baseball players when and where to look, based on previous occlusion findings, when determining direction of ball throw, improved their batting average (Fadde, 2006), highly experienced college baseball athletes so can improve performance in those who are performing highly already
• using knowledge can improve performance