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UMPI Psy100:CBE1-General Psychology > Evaluating Claims > Flashcards

Evaluating Claims Flashcards

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1
Q

Define

Deductive reasoning

A

A generalized statement that is tested against real-world observations

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2
Q

Define

Inductive reasoning

A

Using empirical observations to construct broad generalizations

Unlike deductive reasoning, conclusions drawn from inductive reasoning may or may not be correct, regardless of the observations on which they are based

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3
Q

Define

Theory

A

A well-developed set of ideas that propose an explanation for observed phenomena.

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4
Q

Define

Hypothesis

A

A testable prediction about how the world will behave if our idea is correct

It is often worded as an if-then statement

The hypothesis is extremely important because it bridges the gap between the realm of ideas and the real world.

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5
Q

List

The four steps in the scientific method

A
  1. Theory: use a theory to form a hypothesis
  2. Hypothesis: design a study to test the hypothesis
  3. Research: perform the research
  4. Observation: create or modify the theory

A true scientific method is capable of being falsifiable

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6
Q

Define

Falsifiable

A

Capable of being shown to be incorrect

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7
Q

List

The four research methods in psychology

A
  1. Case studies
  2. Naturalistic observation
  3. Surveys
  4. Longitudinal and cross-sectional research
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8
Q

Explain

Case study

A

a.k.a. clinical study
when scientists study one or a few individuals for observational research.

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9
Q

What are the benefits to case/clinical studies?

A
  1. Gain a tremendous amount of insight to cases
  2. The richness of information is unmatched by any other single research method
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10
Q

What is the drawback to case/clinical studies?

A

It is difficult to generalize any observations to the larger population as a whole.

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11
Q

Define:

Generalizing

A

the ability to apply the findings of a particular research project to larger segments of society.

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12
Q

Explain

Naturalistic observation

A

when scientists observe the behavior in its natural context.

naturalistic observation is not limited to research involving humans.

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13
Q

What is the major benefit to naturalistic observation?

A

The information provided by these studies is invaluable in understanding how those animals organize socially and communicate with one another.

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14
Q

What are the drawbacks to naturalistic observation?

A
  1. They are often difficult to set up and control.
  2. observer bias
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15
Q

Explain

Surveys

A

lists of questions to be answered by research participants.

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16
Q

What are the benefits of surveys?

A
  1. they can collect information from a larger sample of people
  2. data we collect from the survey can be generalized to the larger population with more certainty than the information collected through a case study
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17
Q

What are the drawbacks of surveys?

A
  1. a greater number of people involved creates the inability to collect the same depth of information on each person that would be collected in a case study
  2. People don’t always give accurate responses. *They may lie, misremember, or answer questions in a way that they think makes them look good.
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18
Q

Define

Longitudinal research

A

a research design in which data-gathering is administered repeatedly over an extended period of time.

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19
Q

Define:

Cross-sectional research

A

a research design in which a researcher compares multiple segments of the population at the same time.

While cross-sectional research requires a shorter-term investment, it is also limited by differences that exist between the different cohorts.

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20
Q

Explain

Correlation

A

there is a relationship between two or more variables but this relationship does not necessarily imply cause and effect.

When two variables are correlated, it simply means that as one variable changes, so does the other.

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21
Q

Define

Correlation coefficient

A

a number from -1 to +1 that indicates the strength and direction of the relationship between variables.

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22
Q

What letter represents the correlation coefficient?

A

R

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23
Q

Define

confounding variable

A

a variable that is not included in an experiment, yet affects the relationship between the two variables in an experiment.

24
Q

Explain

Scatterplots

A

a graphical view of the strength and direction of correlations.

The stronger the correlation, the closer the data points are to a straight line.

25
Q

Explain

Positive correlation

A

When two events frequently occur together

26
Q

Explain

Negative correlation

A

When it is likely that one event will not occur when the other event does occur

For example: when it snows, it is likely not going to be sunny

27
Q

Define

Illusory correlations

A

When people believe that relationships exist between two things when no such relationship exists.

also known as false correlations

28
Q

Define

Confirmation bias

A

The tendency to seek out and prefer information that supports our preexisting beliefs.

As a result, we tend to ignore any information that contradicts those beliefs.

29
Q

Define

Experimental manipulation

A

The treatment or variable being tested in the experimental group

30
Q

Define

Operational definition

A

a description of how we will measure our variables

it is important in allowing others understand exactly how and what a researcher measures in a particular experiment.

31
Q

Define

Experimenter bias

A

the possibility that a researcher’s expectations might skew the results of the study

32
Q

Define

Single-blind study

A

one of the groups (participants) are unaware as to which group they are in (experiment or control group) while the researcher who developed the experiment knows which participants are in each group

33
Q

Define

Double-blind study

A

both the researchers and participants are unaware as to which group they are in; they are blind to group assignments.

This is done to control the expectations for both the experimenter and participant.

34
Q

Define:

The placebo effect

A

When people’s expectations or beliefs influence or determine their experience in a given situation.

In other words, simply expecting something to happen can actually make it happen.

35
Q

Explain:

Independent variable

A

the variable that is manipulated or controlled by the experimenter. In a well-designed experimental study

the only important difference between the experimental and control groups.

36
Q

Define:

Variable

A

something that:
1. can change
2. has variations
3. is not true to type

37
Q

Explain:

Dependent variable

A

what the researcher measures to see how much effect the independent variable had

We expect that the dependent variable will change as a function of the independent variable. In other words, the dependent variable depends on the independent variable.

38
Q

Explain:

Participants

A

the subjects of psychological research; individuals who are involved in psychological research and actively participate in the process.

39
Q

Explain:

Random sample

A

a subset of a larger population in which every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected.

Random samples are preferred because we can be reasonably sure that the participating individuals are representative of the larger population if the sample is large enough.

40
Q

Explain:

Random assignment

A

The process in which participants from the sample group are assigned into the control group or experimental group; all participants have an equal chance of being assigned to either group.

41
Q

Explain:

What are the five components of informed consent?

A
  1. a written description of what participants can expect during the experiment
  2. inclusion of potential risks and implications of the research
  3. informs that participation and involvement is completely voluntary
  4. participation can be discontinued without penalty at any time
  5. guarantees that any data collected in the experiment will remain completely confidential.

  • sometimes deception is necessary to prevent participants’ knowledge of the exact research question from affecting the results of the study.
42
Q

Explain

Ethical deception

A

Purposely misleading experiment participants in order to maintain the integrity of the experiment, but not to the point where the deception could be considered harmful.

43
Q

When (ethical) deception is used in the study, what must happen?

A

The participants must receive a full debrief that includes:
1. complete, honest information about the purpose of the experiment
2. how the data collected will be used
3. the reasons why deception was necessary, and
4. information about how to obtain additional information about the study.

44
Q

Define:

Statistical Analysis

A

a branch of mathematics focused on the collection and analysis of data involving the science of mind and behavior.

45
Q

Explain:

Peer-reviewed

A

reviewed by an audience of professionals and scholars who are actively involved in research themselves

46
Q

Explain:

What feedback do peer reviewers give?

A

Peer reviewers look for:
1. a strong rationale for the research being described,
2. a clear description of how the research was conducted, and
3. evidence that the research was conducted in an ethical manner. They also look for
4. flaws in the study’s design, methods, and statistical analyses
5. conclusions drawn by the authors seem reasonable given the observations made during the research
6. how valuable the research is in advancing the discipline’s knowledge.

Peer review helps prevent unnecessary duplication of research findings in the scientific literature and, to some extent, ensures that each research article provides new information. Ultimately, the journal editor will compile all of the peer reviewer feedback and determine whether the article will be published in its current state (a rare occurrence), published with revisions, or not accepted for publication. Peer review provides some degree of quality control for psychological research.

47
Q

Define:

Reliability

A

the ability to consistently produce a given result.

48
Q

Define:

Validity

A

the extent to which a given instrument or tool accurately measures what it’s supposed to measure.

49
Q

List:

The five characteristics of a fact

A
  1. remains the same
  2. objective (cannot be influenced by what someone thinks or believes)
  3. can be confirmed or measured with calculations or data
  4. it can be observed/see it happen
  5. it can be verified by primary sources (research, photographs, artifacts)
50
Q

List

The three characteristics of an opinion

A

(definition: a statement of belief or judgment)
1. can change
2. not universally shared (debatable)
3. evaluates something or someone

51
Q

List

Three types of opinion statements

A
  1. moralistic
  2. comparative
  3. predictive
52
Q

Define:

Pseudoscience

A

Methods that are used (or altered) to confirm beliefs and can be used to prove anything

53
Q

What is the difference between science and pseudoscience

A

Science disconfirms whereas pseudoscience confirms.

If the theory cannot be tested, it is automatically invalid

54
Q

List:

The criteria to determine if a theory is valid

A
  1. testable
  2. refutable
  3. falsifiable
55
Q

What was Popper’s Theory of Knowledge

A

Knowledge is based on probability and contingency. Meaning that our beliefs are shaped on probability based on data; however, our beliefs should be willing to change once data changes. Knowledge is not certainty.

***You should only believe what you have reasons for.

56
Q

How do you evaluate a claim’s credibility?

A

You assess the credibility of the source

57
Q

How do you assess the credibility of the source?

A

By asking:
1. Does the source have any reason to lie? (Do they get any benefit from exaggerating the truth or misleading the audience?)
2. Is there any way that the source is biased? (Although bias is not seen as lying, it is seen as a psychological commitment to erroneous or distorted perspective taking)
3. Can the source’s reliability be trusted?
(Does the source have lack of access to information? – Impediment) (Does the source have any conditions that alter the validity to their information? - Impairment)
4. Can the source’s expertise be trusted?
(Does the source possess the education for the subject matter about which they are making claims?)
(Does the source possess the credentialized, applied skills for the subject matter about which they are making claims?)
(Does the source possess the practical experience–direct, verifiable experience working with a sufficient sample set and collecting measurable, falsifiable data from them–for the subject matter about which they are making claims?

UMPI Psy100:CBE1-General Psychology (3 decks)

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