Evaluating Claims Flashcards
Define
Deductive reasoning
A generalized statement that is tested against real-world observations
Define
Inductive reasoning
Using empirical observations to construct broad generalizations
Unlike deductive reasoning, conclusions drawn from inductive reasoning may or may not be correct, regardless of the observations on which they are based
Define
Theory
A well-developed set of ideas that propose an explanation for observed phenomena.
Define
Hypothesis
A testable prediction about how the world will behave if our idea is correct
It is often worded as an if-then statement
The hypothesis is extremely important because it bridges the gap between the realm of ideas and the real world.
List
The four steps in the scientific method
- Theory: use a theory to form a hypothesis
- Hypothesis: design a study to test the hypothesis
- Research: perform the research
- Observation: create or modify the theory
A true scientific method is capable of being falsifiable
Define
Falsifiable
Capable of being shown to be incorrect
List
The four research methods in psychology
- Case studies
- Naturalistic observation
- Surveys
- Longitudinal and cross-sectional research
Explain
Case study
a.k.a. clinical study
when scientists study one or a few individuals for observational research.
What are the benefits to case/clinical studies?
- Gain a tremendous amount of insight to cases
- The richness of information is unmatched by any other single research method
What is the drawback to case/clinical studies?
It is difficult to generalize any observations to the larger population as a whole.
Define:
Generalizing
the ability to apply the findings of a particular research project to larger segments of society.
Explain
Naturalistic observation
when scientists observe the behavior in its natural context.
naturalistic observation is not limited to research involving humans.
What is the major benefit to naturalistic observation?
The information provided by these studies is invaluable in understanding how those animals organize socially and communicate with one another.
What are the drawbacks to naturalistic observation?
- They are often difficult to set up and control.
- observer bias
Explain
Surveys
lists of questions to be answered by research participants.
What are the benefits of surveys?
- they can collect information from a larger sample of people
- data we collect from the survey can be generalized to the larger population with more certainty than the information collected through a case study
What are the drawbacks of surveys?
- a greater number of people involved creates the inability to collect the same depth of information on each person that would be collected in a case study
- People don’t always give accurate responses. *They may lie, misremember, or answer questions in a way that they think makes them look good.
Define
Longitudinal research
a research design in which data-gathering is administered repeatedly over an extended period of time.
Define:
Cross-sectional research
a research design in which a researcher compares multiple segments of the population at the same time.
While cross-sectional research requires a shorter-term investment, it is also limited by differences that exist between the different cohorts.
Explain
Correlation
there is a relationship between two or more variables but this relationship does not necessarily imply cause and effect.
When two variables are correlated, it simply means that as one variable changes, so does the other.
Define
Correlation coefficient
a number from -1 to +1 that indicates the strength and direction of the relationship between variables.
What letter represents the correlation coefficient?
R
Define
confounding variable
a variable that is not included in an experiment, yet affects the relationship between the two variables in an experiment.
Explain
Scatterplots
a graphical view of the strength and direction of correlations.
The stronger the correlation, the closer the data points are to a straight line.
Explain
Positive correlation
When two events frequently occur together
Explain
Negative correlation
When it is likely that one event will not occur when the other event does occur
For example: when it snows, it is likely not going to be sunny
Define
Illusory correlations
When people believe that relationships exist between two things when no such relationship exists.
also known as false correlations
Define
Confirmation bias
The tendency to seek out and prefer information that supports our preexisting beliefs.
As a result, we tend to ignore any information that contradicts those beliefs.
Define
Experimental manipulation
The treatment or variable being tested in the experimental group
Define
Operational definition
a description of how we will measure our variables
it is important in allowing others understand exactly how and what a researcher measures in a particular experiment.
Define
Experimenter bias
the possibility that a researcher’s expectations might skew the results of the study
Define
Single-blind study
one of the groups (participants) are unaware as to which group they are in (experiment or control group) while the researcher who developed the experiment knows which participants are in each group
Define
Double-blind study
both the researchers and participants are unaware as to which group they are in; they are blind to group assignments.
This is done to control the expectations for both the experimenter and participant.
Define:
The placebo effect
When people’s expectations or beliefs influence or determine their experience in a given situation.
In other words, simply expecting something to happen can actually make it happen.
Explain:
Independent variable
the variable that is manipulated or controlled by the experimenter. In a well-designed experimental study
the only important difference between the experimental and control groups.
Define:
Variable
something that:
1. can change
2. has variations
3. is not true to type
Explain:
Dependent variable
what the researcher measures to see how much effect the independent variable had
We expect that the dependent variable will change as a function of the independent variable. In other words, the dependent variable depends on the independent variable.
Explain:
Participants
the subjects of psychological research; individuals who are involved in psychological research and actively participate in the process.
Explain:
Random sample
a subset of a larger population in which every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected.
Random samples are preferred because we can be reasonably sure that the participating individuals are representative of the larger population if the sample is large enough.
Explain:
Random assignment
The process in which participants from the sample group are assigned into the control group or experimental group; all participants have an equal chance of being assigned to either group.
Explain:
What are the five components of informed consent?
- a written description of what participants can expect during the experiment
- inclusion of potential risks and implications of the research
- informs that participation and involvement is completely voluntary
- participation can be discontinued without penalty at any time
- guarantees that any data collected in the experiment will remain completely confidential.
- sometimes deception is necessary to prevent participants’ knowledge of the exact research question from affecting the results of the study.
Explain
Ethical deception
Purposely misleading experiment participants in order to maintain the integrity of the experiment, but not to the point where the deception could be considered harmful.
When (ethical) deception is used in the study, what must happen?
The participants must receive a full debrief that includes:
1. complete, honest information about the purpose of the experiment
2. how the data collected will be used
3. the reasons why deception was necessary, and
4. information about how to obtain additional information about the study.
Define:
Statistical Analysis
a branch of mathematics focused on the collection and analysis of data involving the science of mind and behavior.
Explain:
Peer-reviewed
reviewed by an audience of professionals and scholars who are actively involved in research themselves
Explain:
What feedback do peer reviewers give?
Peer reviewers look for:
1. a strong rationale for the research being described,
2. a clear description of how the research was conducted, and
3. evidence that the research was conducted in an ethical manner. They also look for
4. flaws in the study’s design, methods, and statistical analyses
5. conclusions drawn by the authors seem reasonable given the observations made during the research
6. how valuable the research is in advancing the discipline’s knowledge.
Peer review helps prevent unnecessary duplication of research findings in the scientific literature and, to some extent, ensures that each research article provides new information. Ultimately, the journal editor will compile all of the peer reviewer feedback and determine whether the article will be published in its current state (a rare occurrence), published with revisions, or not accepted for publication. Peer review provides some degree of quality control for psychological research.
Define:
Reliability
the ability to consistently produce a given result.
Define:
Validity
the extent to which a given instrument or tool accurately measures what it’s supposed to measure.
List:
The five characteristics of a fact
- remains the same
- objective (cannot be influenced by what someone thinks or believes)
- can be confirmed or measured with calculations or data
- it can be observed/see it happen
- it can be verified by primary sources (research, photographs, artifacts)
List
The three characteristics of an opinion
(definition: a statement of belief or judgment)
1. can change
2. not universally shared (debatable)
3. evaluates something or someone
List
Three types of opinion statements
- moralistic
- comparative
- predictive
Define:
Pseudoscience
Methods that are used (or altered) to confirm beliefs and can be used to prove anything
What is the difference between science and pseudoscience
Science disconfirms whereas pseudoscience confirms.
If the theory cannot be tested, it is automatically invalid
List:
The criteria to determine if a theory is valid
- testable
- refutable
- falsifiable
What was Popper’s Theory of Knowledge
Knowledge is based on probability and contingency. Meaning that our beliefs are shaped on probability based on data; however, our beliefs should be willing to change once data changes. Knowledge is not certainty.
***You should only believe what you have reasons for.
How do you evaluate a claim’s credibility?
You assess the credibility of the source
How do you assess the credibility of the source?
By asking:
1. Does the source have any reason to lie? (Do they get any benefit from exaggerating the truth or misleading the audience?)
2. Is there any way that the source is biased? (Although bias is not seen as lying, it is seen as a psychological commitment to erroneous or distorted perspective taking)
3. Can the source’s reliability be trusted?
(Does the source have lack of access to information? – Impediment) (Does the source have any conditions that alter the validity to their information? - Impairment)
4. Can the source’s expertise be trusted?
(Does the source possess the education for the subject matter about which they are making claims?)
(Does the source possess the credentialized, applied skills for the subject matter about which they are making claims?)
(Does the source possess the practical experience–direct, verifiable experience working with a sufficient sample set and collecting measurable, falsifiable data from them–for the subject matter about which they are making claims?
