Ethics Slideshow 1: Introduction/Moral Theory

Question 1

Who is said that justice demands not only impartiality, but that we treat people fairly and in proportion to their needs and merits.

“All ethical doctrines worth our attention take consequences into account in judging rightness. One which did not would simply be irrational, crazy.”

Answer 1

John Rawls (1921-2002)

Question 2

What are Deontology: Duty-based ethics?

Answer 2

1. Duty is the basis of morality.
2. Duty is doing what is right for its own sake.
3. We see deontological very strongly in many world religions.

Question 3

Who said that good will is related to proper self-esteem. A person of “good will” can be counted on to do what is right regardless of emotion, external pressures, etc.

An action that is done to conform to cultural norms has no moral value, even if it appears laudable.

Answer 3

Immanuel Kant (1724-1804)

Question 4

What was Kant’s Categorical Imperative

Answer 4

The categorical imperative is universally binging.

Reason is the basis for morality, so humans are very important. Autonomy is essential for dignity, so only rational beings have inherent worth. Therefore rational beings can never be means, they are not expendable. They are an end in themselves.

Humans have free will, but everything else in nature operates according to physical laws.

Question 5

Categorical Imperative Continued

Answer 5

Provides a framework for discovering moral maxims

A maxim is a duty. According to the categorical imperative.

1. Rational beings must be treated with dignity.
2. We must be able to universalize.

Morals maxims or duties apply to everyone in every place. What the moral maxims are, however, is a question.

Question 6

What are the Principle Of Reciprocity?

Answer 6

1. Reciprocity is similar to the categorical imperative.
2. it is found in Christianity, Confucianism, etc.
3. We should treat others how we want to be treated.
4. Assumes the human person is an end in him or herself.
5. In Christianity, it is referred to as the Golden Rule. “Do to others whatever you would have them do to you. This is the law and the prophets,” Jesus in Matthew 7:12.
6. In Confucianism, it is the “Silver Rule,” stated in the negative. He believed abiding by this rule, along with knowing one’s duties and relationships, would lead to a well-ordered society.

Question 7

Why is Categorical Imperative is not up for debate?

Answer 7

According to Kant, moral maxims/duties must be

1. Consistent with the categorical imperative
2. Universally applicable

Prior to a decision regarding the universal nature of a maxim, we may debate their truthfulness.

For Kant, universally binding moral maxims are absolute. (“They are binding in every place and every time, to every person.)

Question 8

What are the most moral philosophers agree with Kant that maxims/duties are universal, but disagree that they are absolute?

Answer 8

1. Moral duties are prima facie rather than absolute.
2. Prima facie duties are universal, but may on occasion be overridden by stronger moral claims.
3. Prima Facie=Latin, literally “first face” Translated “on the face” or “at first appearance/impression”

Question 9

Who is W.D. Ross (1877-1971)

Answer 9

Sir William D. Ross was a Scottish philosopher. He wrote The Right and The Good and other important works.

1. Moral duties cannot be absolute. There are situations where they conflict.
2. Duties are contextual.
3. Unlike Kant, Ross says consequences do matter.
4. Moral duties can’t be overridden by nonmoral duties.

Question 10

What are Ross’ Seven Prima Facie Duties

Answer 10

1. Beneficence
2. Nonmaleficence
   (Future-Looking)
3. Fidelity
4. Reparation
5. Gratitude
   (Based on Past Obligations)
6. Self-Improvement
7. Justice
   (Ongoing)

Question 11

What is nonmaleficence?

Answer 11

1. Do no harm. We hear this in the Hippocratic Oath.
2. ahimsa (nonharm or nonviolence), derived from Hinduism and Buddhism

Question 12

what is beneficence?

Answer 12

positive duty to promote goodness

Question 13

what is fidelity?

Answer 13

1. to be true, dependable, trustworthy
2. Xiao pr filial piety, Confucianism

Question 14

What is gratitude?

Answer 14

thankfulness, gratefulness, for both unearned and earned favors done for us by others

Question 15

What is reparation?

Answer 15

making up for the past harm we have done

Question 16

what is self-improvement?

Answer 16

striving to improve our moral knowledge and virtue

Question 17

what is justice?

Answer 17

giving each person equal consideration

1. retributive justice- punishment in proportion to the crime
2. distributive justice- fair distribution of benefit and burdens in society

Question 18

How cam distributive justice can become problematic?

Answer 18

1. conflicts of interest
2. scarce resources

Question 19

John Rawls & Justice as Fairness

Answer 19

1. Political philosopher, wrote A Theory of Justice 1971
2. Impartiality (defined as everyone being treated the same) is insufficient.
3. To be treated fairly is to be treated in proportion to one’s needs and merits
4. “Natural lottery” and historical circumstance
5. Redistribution of wealth does not change systemic problems.

Question 20

Rawls’ Veil of Ignorance

Answer 20

1. Concept of using a social contract that is unbiased and based on impartiality.
   2, The idea is that we will be ignorant to the advantages and disadvantages we will receive in life.
2. What governmental/economic system would we choose if we did not know what advantages/disadvantages we would have? This is a thought experiment.

Question 21

moral dilemma

Answer 21

when moral duties conflict…..because moral duties are prima facie, when an issue involves a moral conflict, we must carefully weigh each duty and decide which is the most compelling. Honor as many duties as possible.
2. According to Ross, there is o formula. Use intuition and assess context.
3. Reason + creativity + prioritizing of duties = best possible solution

Question 22

Strengths & Limitations of Deontology

Answer 22

Strengths-
1. recognizes duty as important. Things are inherently right or wrong
2. Highlights important values as universally applicable.
3. The reasoning human person has inherent value, is never a means.
4. is not consequentialist.

Weaknesses
1. No strategy for moral dilemmas
2. Too autonomous– does not take into account the wider community,
3. Overemphasizes justice (duty) and does not take into account care, sentiment.
4. Does not take into account consequences.

Question 23

Rights-based Ethics

Answer 23

1. Moral and legal rights are not the same. Hopefully there is overlap.
2. Moral rights are naturally derived (natural law) or derived from duties (deontology).

Question 24

Dissatisfaction with sovereignty

Answer 24

The idea of moral rights grew in the West in the seventeenth century when people grew unhappy with the idea of sovereign rulers with absolute autonomy.

Question 25

John Locke (1632-1704)

Answer 25

1. Our natural rights stem from human nature. They are self-evident and God-given,
2. Humans have moral rights because we were created in the image of God (imago dei), Gen. 1:26, 27, 9:6, Wisdom, etc.
3. Our rights include the right to own property, marry, have children, and punish wrongs perpetrated against us. We turn over the right to punish to the state when we form a civil society.

(Traditionally, as this played out, these rights are ascribed to white men, as we know.)

Question 26

Natural rights have been equated with human rights.

Answer 26

The idea of natural rights had a huge affect on thinking in the Western world, including on Thomas Jefferson, Thomas Paine, James Madison, and many others, including abolitionists and women’s right advocates.

Question 27

From the Declaration of Independence

Answer 27

When in the Course of humans events, it becomes necessary for one people to dissolve the political bands which have connected them with another, and to assume among the powers of the earth, the separate and equal station to which the Laws of Nature and of Nature’s God entitle them, decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires that they should declare the causes which impel them to the separation.

Question 28

Declaration of Independence, continued

Answer 28

We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain inalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness. - That to secure these rights, Governments are instituted among Men….

Question 29

Declaration of Sentiments

Answer 29

Please see also the Declaration of Sentiments, written at the Seneca Falls Convention in 1848 to bring to the fore of national discussion women’s natural rights, which had been ignored.

Question 30

From Thomas Paine’s Common Sense

Answer 30

“A government pf our own is our natural right.”

“The Almighty hath implanted in us these unextinguishable feelings for good and wise purposes. They are guardians of his image in our hearts. They distinguish us from the herd of common animals.”

Question 31

Ayn Rand (1905-1982)

Answer 31

1. Us is built on natural rights.
2. Only through free enterprise and laissez-faire capitalism can individual rights and freedom be maintained.
3. She and Locke concur that rights occur independent of and prior to duties. Moral rights define and protect our freedom without imposing obligation to provide people with property.)
4. Source of natural rights is our rational human nature, not God.

Question 32

Rights & Duties

Answer 32

1. Most philosophers agree that moral rights do not stand on their own, but are linked to or derived from duties.
2. For utilitarian and deontologists, rights entail duties. Rights are also limited by duties. Not all duties have corollary rights.
3. Some natural rights ethicists say that having a natural right does not imply that others have a duty to honor it - we have to assert our rights, which requires power.

Question 33

Others say rights stem from interests, not from our assertion of power or even an ability to reason

Answer 33

1. Tom Regan argues that rights stem from interests. Because animals have interests, such as not being eaten. they also have rights that we have a duty to respect.
2. Catharine MacKinnon argues that women have a right not to be raped or used for pleasure or profit, so for example, publishers have a duty not to produce hard=core pornography. (Women have an interest in remaining safe.)

Question 34

Is there a danger in connecting reason to moral rights?

Answer 34

1. Historically, who or what have been considered “people,” part of the moral community/
2. Has it been assumed that certain “people” lack the ability to reason and therefore do not have liberty or welfare rights/

Question 35

Liberty Rights & Welfare Rights
(Moral rights are divided into these two categories.)

Answer 35

Liberty Rights
1. Right to be left alone to pursue legitimate interests.
2. Ex. freedom of speech, freedom of religion, etc.

Question 36

Legitimate Interest

Answer 36

1. In rights ethics, interests that do not prevent others from pursuing similar and equally important interests

Question 37

Autonomy

Answer 37

self-determination, the freedom to make one’s own decisions

Question 38

libertarianism

Answer 38

places highest priority to the moral value of autonomy, making liberty rights are paramount. Therefore social and political constraints to personal freedom are opposed.

Question 39

deontologists on liberty

Answer 39

Our liberty rights are restrained by our duty to not harm others and ourselves (our personal welfare).

Kant: Suicide is “an abomination because it involves the misuse of freedom to destroy oneself and one’s freedom.”

Question 40

Most rights are prima facie

Answer 40

Rights, like duties, are prima facie.

Rights may come into conflict.

Liberty rights and welfare rights themselves may come into conflict. In addition, not all have the power to assert their liberty rights, so some contend that welfare rights are necessary.

Can you think of any examples?

Question 41

Some Strengths & Limitations of Rights Ethics

Answer 41

Strengths
1.Protects our dignity as persons, rights are morally meaningful.

2.Lifts up important values like autonomy, freedom, and the development of talent to the betterment of society.

3.Friendly to the theistic and nontheistic, pluralism (origin is God or human nature)

Weaknesses
1. Determination of reason as the basis of rights is problematic. (I disagree that this is a “theological problem.”) What is the origin of rights?

2. Separation of rights from duties fails to take into account that some have more power and more resources, so are better able to assert their liberty rights. (It presupposes equality.) Sometimes unrealistic.
3. Text claims that liberty rights do place burdens on others. (This may be true, but their examples are incorrect. Most libertarians are opposed to both taxation and over policing.)

Question 42

Virtue Ethics

Answer 42

Stresses right being (character) over right action

1. Is this a false dilemma? Aren’t these connected? Isn’t virtue/character, who we are, intrinsically connected to our actions?
2. What would a person of integrity do?
3. Is not an alternative to ethical theories that emphasize right action, is complementary

Question 43

virtue

Answer 43

an admirable character trait or disposition to habitually act in a manner that benefits ourselves and others

Kant’s person of “good will”

to possess goodness

Question 44

Traditional virtues

Answer 44

Four Cardinal Virtues
1. Prudence

2. Justice
3. Temperance
4. Fortitude

Theological Virtues
1. Faith

2. Hope
3. Charity

Question 45

Aristotle: Reason & Virtue

Answer 45

divided virtues into intellectual and moral virtues

Intellectual virtues are cultivated through growth and experience.

Moral virtues are cultivated by habit.

wisdom=highest virtue because it makes the others possible

virtue=living according to reason

People are inherently political, so the purpose of the state is to encourage virtue. Justice=primary virtue of the state.

Question 46

habituation

Answer 46

The regular practice of virtuous behavior, until it becomes second nature (Aristotle)

Question 47

Aristotle’s Doctrine of the Mean

Answer 47

Most virtues entail finding the mean between excess and deficiency.
Ex: Courage is the mean between cowardice (deficiency) and foolhardiness (excess).
This is not luke-warmness, but seeking what is reasonable.
Notes: (1) See chart on Aristotle’s Doctrine of the Mean, pg. 39. (2) Similar approaches are found in Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism. For more on those world religions, please see www.worldreligionsclasscom and click on the tab on the upper right that has a drop-down menu with my religion slideshows.

Question 48

Friedrich Nietzsche

Answer 48

Critic of cultural relativism (“herd morality”)
Criticized what has become considered typical “Christian morality,” which he believed to uplift meekness but which is instead destructive to personal integrity and growth.
Ubermensch, superman: a person of integrity and self-mastery who can rise above herd morality and exercise the “will to power.” This is not the will to dominate, but the courage to live a virtuous life.

Question 49

Care Ethics

Answer 49

Emphasizes caring/consideration over justice and impartiality
Carol Gilligan’s study of women’s moral reasoning, says women’s moral development tends to be different than men’s. Women are more concerned with relationship and context whereas men emphasize duty and principle.
Influence of David Hume, who emphasizes sentiment over moral reasoning. Hume says sympathy drives us and breaks down the we/them barrier.
Nel Noddings says we are at our moral best when we are “caring and being cared for.” Right, Nel Noddings

Question 50

Care Ethics, continued

Answer 50

It is caring and being in relationship, not an abstract sense of duty, that compels us to act.
When our personal inclination to care is lacking, it is our commitment to an ideal or principle of caring that motivates us to do what is right.
Caring is not a feeling. In this sense, deontologists and care ethicists can meet. The ideal of or commitment to caring is somewhat like a duty that a person of “good will” can be depended on to do.
Compassion and sympathy are real forms of knowledge that should be taken seriously in formulating social policy. Public vs. private morality is false dichotomy.
Justice and care are not in conflict, but need to be used together to form policy.

Question 51

Some Strengths & Weaknesses of Virtue Ethics

Answer 51

Strengths
Emphasizes unity of character (all virtues work together and compel us to act)
Gives abstract virtues a personal face
Not based on feelings
Goes beyond duties and rights

Limitations
“Incomplete” system
Lacks formal guidance in how to make moral decisions

Question 52

Intuition

Answer 52

Earlier, John Rawls suggested that we need to use intuition in order to solve moral dilemmas.
While he said there is no formula, he said that
reason
creativity
prioritizing of duties
result in the best possible solution. What is intuition? It is hard to define.

Question 53

Intuition

Answer 53

A philosopher who asserts that moral propositions are self-evident uses intuition as a basis for moral decision-making.
Intuition, from any philosophical perspective, is not the same as intuition in the colloquial sense, as a gut or spiritual knowledge.
Intuition can be used as either an alternative to reason or as a supplement to reason. Some philosophers do not consider intuition sufficient, as it may offer no proof or justification (since they are self-evident).
Intuitions are mental states or events in which a proposition seems true in the manner of these propositions.

Question 54

According to Helen Buss Mitchell, the author of Roots of Wisdom

Answer 54

Intuition is an all-at-once knowing that is neither logical (step-by-step) nor empirical (based on experimentation), but results in certainty.
What helps science people to understand this is that Einstein stepped off the Metro and received either the General or Special Theory of Relativity in an instant download. It took him a year to think through the equations that would convince others.
Inorganic chemist, Kekule, was struggling to understand the structure of benzene when he had a dream of snakes chasing each others’ tails…and intuitively understood the structure.
Sometimes an intuition arrives through dreams/non-rational means.

Question 55

Self-Evident

Answer 55

John Locke: A self-evident proposition is one that “carries its own light and evidence with it, and needs no other proof: he that understands the terms, assents to it for its own sake.”
Richard Price: A self-evident proposition is immediate and needs no further proof. A self-evident propositions need only be understood to gain assent.
W.D. Ross: A self-evident proposition is “evident without any need of proof, or of evidence beyond itself.”