Bioethics Genetic Engineering Stem Cell Research

Question 1

asexual procreation

Answer 1

reproduction (as cell division, spore formation, fission, or budding) without union of individuals or gametes (Merriam-Webster)
type of reproduction by which offspring arise from a single organism, and inherit the genes of that parent only; it does not involve the fusion of gametes, and almost never changes the number of chromosomes. Asexual reproduction is the primary form of reproduction for single-celled organisms, such as archaea and bacteria. Many plants and fungi sometimes reproduce asexually. (Wikipedia)

Question 2

gamete

Answer 2

Gamete, sex, or reproductive, cell containing only one set of dissimilar chromosomes, or half the genetic material necessary to form a complete organism (i.e., haploid). Gametes are formed through meiosis (reduction division), in which a germ cell undergoes two fissions, resulting in the production of four gametes. During fertilization, male and female gametes fuse, producing a diploid (i.e., containing paired chromosomes) zygote. https://www.britannica.com/science/gamete

Question 3

Dolly the sheep, 1997

Answer 3

Roslin Institute in Edinburgh, Scotland
First clone of adult mammal
Created asexually from single cell from her mother’s udder
Set off much debate about the morality of cloning generally, but specifically about human cloning
Created through two technologies: cloning and genetic engineering
http://dolly.roslin.ed.ac.uk/facts/the-life-of-dolly/index.html

Question 4

Human Enbryo Model, Cambridge, 2023

Answer 4

https://www.catholicnewsagency.com/news/254608/first-reported-synthetic-human-embryo-sparks-ethical-concerns-creates-questions?mkt_tok=NDI3LUxFUS0wNjYAAAGMfFcwV0_SnkR7XN8fpgX565YBJDpvZ98mE7bEWRFWYnAsSSzrXBxb-vPY3Pqhy-WQVvPmdsxaEbacyaLt-mHlXGJnDWjb_g8NOnL0tZo

Question 5

Watch this video about the Human Genome Project: https://youtu.be/8sh2ducI0ZA

Answer 5

an international scientific research project with the goal of determining the sequence of nucleotide base pairs that make up human DNA, and of identifying and mapping all of the genes of the human genome from both a physical and a functional standpoint. It remains the world’s largest collaborative biological project. After the idea was picked up in 1984 by the US government when the planning started, the project formally launched in 1990 and was declared complete on April 14, 2003. Funding came from the US government through the NIH and numerous other international groups.

Question 6

genome

Answer 6

Genetic blueprint or code containing a complete set of chromosomes

Question 7

chromosome

Answer 7

any of the rod-shaped or threadlike DNA-containing structures of cellular organisms that are located in the nucleus of eukaryotes, are usually ring-shaped in prokaryotes (such as bacteria), and contain all or most of the genes of the organism (Merriam-Webster)
a threadlike structure of nucleic acids and protein found in the nucleus of most living cells, carrying genetic information in the form of genes.

Question 8

Francis Galton, 1822-1911

Answer 8

Coined term eugenics in 1883
(cousin of Darwin)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francis_Galton
https://www.biography.com/people/francis-galton-9305647
http://www.galtoninstitute.org.uk/sir-francis-galton/

Question 9

Plato

Answer 9

427-347 BC
In Republic, proposed the use of selective breeding to improve society.

Question 10

eugenics

Answer 10

Pretty good summary here: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eugenics, in addition to history, a list of types of eugenics is included near bottom of article. Eugenics in the USA has its own article, which isn’t bad, but missing some information: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eugenics_in_the_United_States)

Text defines it as “the science of improving the genetic quality of offspring.”
From Greek eugenes, roughly translated “good stock or offspring.”
eu=good
genos=genes

Question 11

eugenics

Answer 11

Note: “Improving genetic quality of offspring” is a controversial definition at this time.
Term coined in 1883, although ancient concept.
Result: marriage prohibition and sterilization of those deemed unfit to breed (those with low IQ, developmental, neurological differences, “deviants,” etc.).
These practices persist in the U.S. to this day, but mostly ceased in the 1970s and 80s.
Although formal eugenics “programs” do not exist in the U.S., they continue through selective abortion practices and genetic programs (euphemistically referred to as “transhumanism”).

Question 12

sterilization

Answer 12

Medical procedure that renders a person unable to reproduce
Intended to be permanent, not reversible

Question 13

Idiot, Imbecile, Moron

Answer 13

Idiots: those so defective that the mental development never exceeds that of a normal child of about two years.
Imbeciles: those whose development is higher than that of an idiot, but whose intelligence does not exceed that of a normal child of about seven years.
Morons: those whose mental development is above that of an imbecile, but does not exceed that of a normal child of about twelve years.
— Edmund Burke Huey, Backward and Feeble-Minded Children, 1912

Question 14

Forcible sterilization

Answer 14

“Between 1907 and 1963, more than 64,000 people were forcibly sterilized in the U.S.”
The U.S. was one of the first countries to initiate forced sterilization (eugenics) programs, to prevent “unfit” people from reproducing.
Watch: https://youtu.be/FLM8dkIsHS0 (Part 1)
https://youtu.be/acVPt1qr5MY (Part 2)
https://www.ourbodiesourselves.org/book-excerpts/health-article/forced-sterilization/
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compulsory_sterilization

Question 15

Watson & Crick

Answer 15

Francis Crick & James Watson stole the work of 33-year-old Rosalind Franklin and claimed it as their own.
1962 Nobel Prize for “discovery” of the molecular structure of DNA

Question 16

Rosalind Franklin

Answer 16

Rosalind Franklin was the true scientist who discovered the structure of DNA, and did so at the young age of 33. Her paper was written first and all her work stolen (plagiarized) by Watson and Crick, who then received credit.
https://www.genengnews.com/commentary/rosalind-franklin-the-scientist/
Watch this video.

Question 17

More on the Human Genome Project

Answer 17

HGP: worldwide cooperative effort to map the entire human genetic makeup or genome, began 1990
In 2003, the complete human genome sequence was released to the public.
Led to dramatic increase in number of genetic tests for various conditions (+1,600 currently)
The HGP has led to fears about what the information will be used for, like altering humans by replacing “undesirable” genes and restarting various eugenics practices and programs.

Question 18

defining terms

Answer 18

genome: genetic blueprint or code containing a complete set of chromosomes
genotype: the genetic blueprint of a particular individual

Question 19

Designing the Perfect Human?

Answer 19

Testing for specific genes may be possible shortly: obesity, nearsightedness, depression, alcoholism, Alzheimer’s, etc.
Ability to manipulate genotype
Is it moral to manipulate genetic makeup? Are there limits?
Creation of new genomes “from scratch,” new field of synthetic biology

Question 20

Is DNA proprietary? (Can it be owned?)

Answer 20

Capitalism objectifies even human biology and turns people into commodities to be bought and sold.

Question 21

Genetic engineering

Answer 21

An alteration of genetic material by artificial means

Question 22

genetic engineering

Answer 22

gene therapy: introduction of normal or desirable genes into cells to override deleterious genes
genetic enhancement: manipulation of genetic material in order to improve a person’s phenotype
phenotype = the set of observable characteristics of an individual resulting from the interaction of its genotype with the environment

Question 23

germ cell

Answer 23

ovum and sperm

Question 24

transgenic animals and plants

Answer 24

animals and plants with genes introduced from another species
trans = across

Question 25

Safety of GM crops

Answer 25

“By the late 1980s, scientists were genetically altering food to improve durability and quality.”
FDA declared these foods safe.
Majority of foods grown in US are genetically modified.
Many other countries ban GM foods as unsafe.
GM foods are controversial.

Question 26

chimeras

Answer 26

embryos created from the genetic material of two different species

Question 27

Cloning vs. Genetic engineering

Answer 27

Cloning
Process of creating genetically identical individuals through asexual reproduction

Genetic engineering
Alteration of genetic material by artificial means

Question 28

two types of gene therapy

Answer 28

somatic cell therapy: normal genes are introduced to produce something, such as an enzyme or protein, that is lacking because of a “genetic defect.” Used to treat cancer. Note: does not get rid of defective gene or change a person’s genotype, so defective gene can be passed on
germ line therapy: alters genetic structure of germ line cells (sperm/ova) for future generations, possible to introduce synthetic genes/chromosomes, not approved

Question 29

designer babies

Answer 29

Both somatic cell therapy and germ line therapy may be used to create “designer babies.”
It is possible to create artificial genes and chromosomes.
“Upgrading” humans by combining genetic engineering and robotics
Dr. Gregory Stock: “In the not-too-distant future, it will be looked at as kind of foolhardy to have a child by normal conception.”
What is the danger, if any?

Question 30

Proposed uses of genetic engineering & cloning

Answer 30

Solution to infertility Infertile couples clone one of themselves to have a child genetically related to at least one parent
Replacement children Clone a child to replace a dying or dead child
Replicate desirable genomes Nuclei transfer from adult cells could be used to create clones of exceptional people
Genetic testing & gene therapy Genetic tests predict diseases and gene therapy used to replace defective genes

Prolong human life Identify genes responsible for aging, extend life span
Stem cell (regenerative) medicine Stem cells could be used to repair or replace damaged tissues for diseases such as Alzheimer’s and spinal cord injuries
Directing human evolution By replacing/adding selected genes, we may be able to direct evolution of human and other species

Question 31

Proposed uses of genetic engineering & cloning

Answer 31

Agriculture Genetically engineered/cloned animals/plants to produce “high quality food”
Medicinal animals Transgenic animals with human genetic material could be cloned to be used as drug factories or as models for human diseases
Genetically guided drugs Development of genome scanning would allow pharmaceutical manufacturers to custom-tailor drugs to a person’s genome

Research tools Cloned animals could be infected with human diseases and different therapies could be tried on them
Organ donors Animals could be genetically altered so their organs are compatible with human organs and used for human transplant
Endangered/extinct species Endangered species could be cloned to ensure survival, extinct animals could be cloned if viable cells are available

Question 32

cloning

Answer 32

Process of producing genetically identical individuals through asexual reproduction
Two types:
blastocyst (embryo) splitting
somatic cell nuclei transfer (SCNT)
nuclei transfer using embryonic/fetal cells
nuclei transfer using adult cells

Question 33

blastocyst

Answer 33

Embryonic stage in mammals consisting of two to eight cells
Blastocyst splitting method of cloning, separating cells at the blastocyst or preimplantation stage of development (At this stage, the two to eight cells are not yet specialized and can split naturally, creating identical twins)
(George Washington U announced in 1993 that they’d created the first clones of human embryos.)

Question 34

nuclei transfer

Answer 34

Using embryonic/fetal cells: the nucleus from an early embryo is transferred to an unfertilized egg from which the original nucleus has been removed (tadpoles 1952, monkeys 1997)
Using adult cells: taking the nucleus from the cell of an adult and transferring it into a mature egg from which the nucleus has been removed. Makes it possible for anyone to be cloned in any quantity. Clone the dead, including extinct species. (Dolly 1997)

Question 35

Cloning the dead/extinct species: “De-extinction”

Answer 35

With the ability to store cells that outlive their donors, it may be possible to clone the dead, including members of extinct species. 80% of the wooly mammoth’s genome has been sequenced.
https://qz.com/913682/a-harvard-university-scientistss-attempt-to-resurrect-a-wooly-mammoth-raises-ethical-questions/

Question 36

Condemnation of human reproductive cloning

Answer 36

After Dolly’s birth, many countries started to ban human cloning (1997 Europe & US, 2003 & 2009 US, 2005 UN)
US ban only affects those using federal money, does not affect private sector.
US looks for a permanent ban, and this is in line with public opinion.
No claims of cloning humans from adult DNA have been substantiated, as of the date of publication (2018).

Question 37

Stem cell research

Answer 37

Important note: There are two types of stem cells. Those that originate in human embryos and adult stem cells. In this chapter, we are talking about embryonic stem cells. Use of adult stem cells is not controversial.
Many scientists believe that embryonic stem cell research, in particular, holds hope for curing certain diseases (new field regenerative medicine).
Embryonic stem cells are pluripotent.

Question 38

pluripotent

Answer 38

Embryonic stem cells are pluripotent: they have the potential to become any one of the more than 220 cell types that make up the human body.
Embryonic stem cells are extracted from embryos that are a few days old.
Diseases such as Alzheimer’s, Parkinson’s, spinal damage, stroke, osteoporosis, cancer, diabetes, cystic fibrosis, etc. are those they hope to address.

Question 39

Support is based on utilitarian moral theory (consequentialism).

Answer 39

Note: Embryonic stem cell research is prohibited or legally restricted in most countries. Most existing embryonic stem cell lines come from “discarded” embryos from fertility clinics and from donated eggs.
Proponents say that these embryos would be discarded anyway, so we may as well use them for a greater good. What, if anything, is problematic about this argument?

Question 40

Utilitarian vs. Deontological (and other) Theories of Personhood

Answer 40

Utilitarian/Consequentialist
Humans have no inherent moral value, but sentient beings do.
Utilitarian calculation must be applied in order to determine if result of an action is moral.
If greater happiness can be determined, the action is moral.

Deontological, Natural Law, Other
Humans have inherent moral value due to factors like the light (of God)/ability to reason.
Humans can never be used as means to an end, but only as ends in themselves.
Actions that violate the sanctity of human life are always immoral.

Question 41

Debate may be a moot point someday.

Answer 41

As technology advances, scientists may find that adult stem cells are useful. Some scientists have already determined that umbilical cord blood and amniotic fluid are extremely useful.

Question 42

Human dignity

Answer 42

Immanuel Kant: Human dignity requires that humans be treated as ends in themselves.
Leon Kass: Cloning is immoral because it treats humans as commodities rather than ends in themselves. (Clones are valued only for their genomes. Cloning reduces people to their genetic codes.)

Question 43

Robert Boyle (1627-1691)

Answer 43

British philosopher and scientist
Vast background in various sciences, agriculture, interested in improving the lot of humanity.
“I think the physician is to look upon the patient’s body as an engine that is out of order.”
https://www.sciencehistory.org/historical-profile/robert-boyle
https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/boyle/

Question 44

reductionism

Answer 44

the idea that the human body can be reduced to an elaborate machine
This notion continues to dominate medicine.
The Catholic Church continues to condemn reductionism, and for this reason rejects cloning, in vitro fertilization, etc. Pope Benedict XVI (Cardinal Ratzinger) said, “We encourage scientific research, but science is not an absolute, to which everything must be subordinated and eventually sacrificed, including the dignity of man.”

Question 45

reductionism

Answer 45

“Reductionism removes the human body from its social and personal context and reduces it to an object to be studied and manipulated.” (text)
“To have someone else define who we are removes our sense of self-control over our bodies, which is essential to our self-identity and well-being.” (text)
Same issues of personhood are found here as in the abortion issue. Does an embryo have personhood?

Question 46

self-identity

Answer 46

“Genetic enhancement has been condemned as tampering with a child’s self-identity and right to choose his or her own future.” (text)
Some say that parents make decisions on behalf of their children that alter their phenotype (environmental modification, activities, medical decisions, etc.).
If it is commendable to alter a child’s environment for their wellbeing, why is it immoral to use genetic interventions to do the same? Why are genetic modifications seen as objectionable while environmental ones are not?

Question 47

Clones: Are they full persons?

Answer 47

There is a concern that clones may be denied full personhood and used in exploitative ways. We could create a whole subclass of humans.

The opposite could also occur. Clones could become a master race with more desirable genomes. Natural humans could be viewed as inferior.

Question 48

Gene patents

Answer 48

Human Genome Project has accelerated the patenting of human genes.

HGP said that human genome must remain in the public domain, but in the US and elsewhere, human cells that have been genetically modified can be owned and patented.

Why is this issue so important and contentious, or even scary?

Question 49

Owning humanity

Answer 49

Owning humanity

Question 50

Human Genome Diversity Project

Answer 50

Separate project from HGP
Established to expand scope of genome research by collecting blood samples from groups of isolated indigenous people.
Less than 1% of human genome is responsible for differences between groups of people.
Dubbed “Vampire Project” and “bio-colonialism,” extension of white colonialism that treats the bodies of indigenous people as commodities to be exploited. Project has been halted.

Question 51

bio-colonialism

Answer 51

the commandeering of knowledge and biological resources from an indigenous people without compensation
Can human biology, biodiversity, traditional knowledge, etc. be subject to intellectual property rights or public domain? (See last video for more on this.) Danger: states or corporations as owners of biodiversity, genetic resources. Who becomes gatekeeper?
http://nativeamerasure.leadr.msu.edu/
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xezo8kFd0DU&t=319s (Watch this talk.)

Question 52

defining perfection and disease

Answer 52

“Perfection” and “health” are subjective ideas.
Who gets to determine what these things mean?
Is “perfect” consequentialist? Does it imply consequences for the wider community and species? Is it a private matter? Should parents get to manipulate the genetic destiny of future generations?
Why is it dangerous to idealize and quantify health?
Watch: https://youtu.be/ulIjZ7Hbi7Y

Question 53

“Special Books By Special Kids”

Answer 53

Is it possible to have a disability, disease, or different neurology and still have “quality of life”/”happiness”? What constitutes “health,” “perfection,” etc.?
Choose a video from this Youtube channel and watch: https://www.youtube.com/channel/UC4E98HDsPXrf5kTKIgrSmtQ

Question 54

“Happiness” (“Quality of Life”)

Answer 54

How do we define and measure “happiness”? Is it possible?
Who decides what happiness is? Why does it matter who decides?
Is happiness (“quality of life”) a goal of life? Why or why not?
Is happiness the only purpose of life?
Is it one of many purposes of human life?
Is consideration of happiness relevant?
Is it possible for human life to have inherent value and meaning even when it lacks happiness?
What is the purpose of suffering?
Do those who suffer still enjoy or add value to life?

Question 55

Cultural relativism usually determines preferred traits

Answer 55

“The reject of today may be the genius of tomorrow’s world.” (text)
Albert Einstein had very “late” speech, communication issues that sometimes resulted in aggression, sensory aversions like a resistance to socks, lack of interest in social events including team sports, specific interests at which he excelled, and was born, we think, with encephalitis (he had a big head).
Watch these: https://youtu.be/oGXW_GX2q7I
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=57KesV9N9ek

Question 56

the right to be unique

Answer 56

The text claims that the argument against cloning that states we have a “right to be unique” has no scientific basis.
Genes provide the “building blocks” for individuals, but even identical twins have their own unique identities.
https://youtu.be/JMlJcOSRX-8
https://gypsy.ninja/photos-identical-twins-london/

Question 57

interfering with nature

Answer 57

The right to create new life belongs to God and we should not interfere.
What is “creating”?
What is “God’s domain”?
Note: This argument is irrelevant to atheists.
Natural = good
Naturalistic fallacy (see Chapter 1)
We always interfere with nature for the sake of human betterment (fight against disease, etc.)

Question 58

interfering with nature

Answer 58

Counter-argument: Medicine’s purpose is to intervene in already existing humanity, not to create new people.
Creation of new people is something wholly different than intervening in human suffering. Medicine should not use humans as a means to an end for other humans.

Question 59

interfering with nature–species integrity

Answer 59

Species have integrity and should be kept separate.
Text claims this is reminiscent of racial purity argument. Is it? Text claims that in nature, species are crossed all the time. Is this true? Or is it possible that our definition of species, as artificial human categories, is not always accurate? And is this idea of crossing species true in the case of humanity? I do not find the racial purity comparison convincing.

Question 60

redefining parenthood and family

Answer 60

Kass: Cloning would wreak havoc with our notions of parenting and family. It is not wise to separate reproduction from sexuality. Family=fundamental unit upon which all societies are built. Clones come biologically from only one parent (possibly their twin), therefore the act of conjugal love, the only method of human procreation consistent with the dignity of man, ie omitted.
http://w2.vatican.va/content/john-paul-ii/en/apost_exhortations/documents/hf_jp-ii_exh_19811122_familiaris-consortio.html (Papal encyclical, Familiaris Consortio)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theology_of_the_Body

Question 61

redefining parenthood and family

Answer 61

Cloning makes men reproductively superfluous, should a woman want to have a child independently of any male genetic material (she could clone herself).
Kass’ critics claim that:
The right to have two parents is an artificial right. How is this any different from an adoptive scenario? (Answer: adoption is due to necessity in which a child does not have a family able to take care of him/her. Cloning for the purpose of creating a child is never a necessity.)
Clones could still have two “social parents.”
Cloning could be the only opportunity for some couples to have a child that is biologically related to them. (Is this necessary/a right?)

Question 62

autonomy and reproductive rights

Answer 62

What is autonomy? Is autonomy an absolute right? We visited this idea back in Chapter 2.
Parents often have a desire to have a child that is their own genetic child. This is a desire, not a right.
Is the cloning of oneself or the creation of a “perfect” child (a “designer baby”) morally wrong? Why or why not?
For couples who cannot afford it, genetic perfection (and cloning) will be out of reach, and could result in a subclass and discrimination.
“Wrongful life suit” against parents who failed to abort or, in future, “fix” a “genetic problem.”
Reproductive “rights” could turn into a duty to have “perfect” (culturally relativistically speaking) children.

Question 63

justice as fairness

Answer 63

Children who are the result of genetic technology will have an unfair advantage. (Cultural standards of beauty, health, ability, etc.)
Those who are “denied” the opportunity for genetic engineering/enhancement could result in distinct classes.
John Rawls: Eugenics could create a caste system dividing society into separate biological populations. Those with abilities should use them for the common advantage.
Genetic Information Nondiscrimination Act of 2008 forbids employers and health insurance companies from requiring genetic tests and from discriminating based on genetic information.

Question 64

Consequentialist arguments

Answer 64

Weighing the harms vs. benefits of genetic engineering, cloning, and embryonic stem cell research. For utilitarian/consequentialist reasoning, we must do a calculation of pleasure/pain and determine the greatest happiness.
Since these are new areas, any answer is speculative. There are large concerns about: safety, human dignity, mass producing of people for various medical uses, the development of subclasses, breakdown of the parent-child relationship, deterioration of the family, an undermining of human diversity, less genetic “flexibility,” and unhealthy homogeneity.