Ethical Traditions Part 2

Question 1

If we witness an individual trying to commit suicide, most of us would probably try to dissuade him from going through with it but we probably have no right to permanently dissuade him as this would interfere with his rights to ________ unless he is incompetent.

Answer 1

autonomy

Explanation:

If an individual is not yet an adult or if we suspect that he is of unsound mind, then these individuals should be protected from themselves, and morally, intervention would be justifiable.

Question 2

Autonomy is the ability to make ones own _________.

Answer 2

decisions

Explanation:

The principle of respect for autonomy implies that one should be free from coercion in deciding to act, and that others are obligated to respect privacy, tell the truth and protect confidentiality.

Question 3

Some people believe that suicide is never morally acceptable and most of these people base their objections on _________ grounds.

Answer 3

religious

Explanation:

Jews and Christians often turn to Thou shall not murder as the reason God prohibits suicide, implying that suicide is self-murder. However, other theorists do not agree with this as suicide is not expressly prohibited in the Bible.

Question 4

Euthanasia is a thorny moral issue and can be defined as the act of killing or allowing the death of an individual who is hopelessly ill for reasons of _____.

Answer 4

mercy

Explanation:

It is conducted in the interests of the person undergoing euthanasia–to end their suffering and preserve their dignity or autonomy.

Question 5

Involuntary euthanasia occurs when an individual undergoes euthanasia without having freely given their _______ and must be immoral as it ignores the wishes of the individual and hence violates their human rights.

Answer 5

consent

Explanation:

This is the definition of this kind of euthanasia and would not only be morally wrong but also illegal and considered an act of murder.

Question 6

Voluntary passive euthanasia is permitted in the US because a competent individual is entitled to refuse _________________ and it could be argued that this act is morally acceptable because it respects ones right to autonomy as well as appeals to virtues such as kindness and compassion.

Answer 6

medical treatment

Explanation:

Voluntary passive euthanasia occurs when a person refuses medical treatment that could save their life. Therefore, a persons right to autonomy is respected.

Question 7

Voluntary ______ euthanasia refers to the direct action that causes death, such as a person asking a doctor to inject him with a lethal dose of drugs. Many people would consider this immoral because it can never be permissible to kill a person.

Answer 7

active

Explanation:

This is effectively what is being asked of the doctor by this person. When compared with passive voluntary euthanasia, it seems that it is more acceptable to let someone die rather than to actually kill that person.

Question 8

It can be argued that letting a person die is as immoral as actually killing a person, especially if the outcome of the former causes more _________.

Answer 8

suffering

Explanation:

When withholding treatment, the person may suffer more pain for a longer time. Compare this with the swift end of the lethal injection.

Question 9

Fears have been expressed that if ______ euthanasia is socially acceptable or legalized, then moral corruption will set in as respect for life is reduced and this may lead to abuses.

Answer 9

active

Explanation:

The fear here is that if active euthanasia is acceptable, then it may open the floodgates for the acceptability of killing the disabled or elderly. Opponents of this view say the risk is exaggerated.

Question 10

Where the patient is incompetent–for example, in a persistent vegetative state–decisions about withholding or providing medical treatment must be made by others in consultation with health staff, but extreme _______ must be taken in these circumstances.

Answer 10

caution

Question 11

Some believe that in matters of taxation, everyone should pay a flat rate regardless of income whereas others believe that it is fairer and more ethically justifiable to have a _________ system based on individuals income.

Answer 11

graduated

Explanation:

People are not equal when it comes to paying taxes because their earnings are different. Therefore, it is argued and adopted by many governments that those who earn more money should pay a higher tax rate.

Question 12

Some people believe that Black Americans do not receive equality in society due to racial discrimination, and so support policies called __________________.

Answer 12

affirmative action

Explanation:

These policies (begun in the 1960s) cover a wide range of actions and give minority applicants priority over whites for jobs, promotions and college admissions. This is highly controversial.

Question 13

Affirmative action covers a wide variety of policies and programs. One form of affirmative action is ____________ treatment.

Answer 13

preferential

Explanation:

Preferential treatment is a controversial policy which promotes selecting less or equally qualified minority applicants over white applicants for employment or school admissions on the basis of race.

Question 14

Many people have questioned the preferential treatment of blacks over whites and argue that it is a form of _______ discrimination, and hence, a denial of justice for whites.

Answer 14

reverse

Explanation:

They argue that if it is ethically wrong to discriminate against blacks on the basis of their race, then surely it is just as wrong to do the same against whites.

Question 15

Proponents of preferential treatment morally justify the policy on the grounds that black Americans have suffered undue harm from past racial discrimination which has resulted in the current absence of equality of ___________ and equal treatment, and hence this policy is necessary to correct this imbalance.

Answer 15

opportunity

Explanation:

It is argued that past discrimination led to inferior education, housing, health care, jobs, etc., and hence black Americans were not offered the same prospects for progress as whites were.

Question 16

Some philosophers have argued that the ethical dilemma with preferential treatment is that in benefiting one group, you end up _______ another.

Answer 16

harming

Explanation:

By denying a more highly qualified white person a job, these persons may be denied a position in the nations elite society grouping. In making up for past discriminations, the whites who suffer now had no hand in participating in previous inequalities, whereas those who did are not made to bear the burden.

Question 17

The right to _________ is enshrined in the American psyche but some people question the ethical justification for the storage of firearms in the home where a child may be able to obtain it and cause injury to himself or others.

Answer 17

bear arms

Question 18

Incarceration is a typical form of punishment levied on perpetrators of crime, but moral concerns have been raised over imprisoning _________ and those with intellectual disabilities.

Answer 18

juveniles

Explanation:

There is concern that the incarceration of juveniles will prepare them for a life of crime rather than reform them, as they can be trained by other more experienced criminals in the prison.

Question 19

_______ punishment of persons who commit crimes under the age of 18 is permitted in some US states; this is morally questionable because a person under 18 is not considered fully competent.

Answer 19

Capital

Explanation:

Some contend that children under 18 lack maturity and rationality to be able to fully comprehend their actions and their consequences.

Question 20

There are many proponents of capital punishment and they morally justify their stand on the grounds that it is an effective deterrent, is less costly to taxpayers than life imprisonment, provides emotional ______ to the loved ones of the victim, and is permissible by God in the Bible.

Answer 20

relief

Explanation:

Many believe that this is a justifiable reason for capital punishment, in that it provides closure for the loved ones and hence is morally right.

Question 21

The opponents of capital punishment contend that ____________ is adequate. They argue that capital punishment is immoral on the basis that it is an ineffective deterrent, it perpetuates and makes violence acceptable, it is applied discriminatorily, and offenders may change into good people, but perhaps the most compelling reason is that the offender may be innocent.

Answer 21

imprisonment

Explanation:

Mistakes in the criminal justice system are inevitable–no system is perfect. Therefore, many argue that it is unethical to execute someone where they may be innocent. Executions cannot be reversed.

Question 22

The two main ethical issues that arise when dealing with war are: 1) when is it acceptable to resort to war and 2) what are the moral ______ in waging it.

Answer 22

limits

Explanation:

States cannot wage war when they feel like it. There must be reasons and conditions for waging war.

Question 23

Pacifists believe that war is _____ justified, arguing that it is not only immoral, but ineffective.

Answer 23

never

Explanation:

Pacifists cite two reasons for believing that war is never justified; first, that war is immoral (regardless of goals) and second, that war is ineffective (violence always results in more violence).

Question 24

Pacifists contend that war violate a persons moral right to life and this cannot be justified by any ____ that may result from the war.

Answer 24

good

Explanation:

This is one of the consequences of war–soldiers as well as innocent civilians are killed.

Question 25

Just because one is a pacifist does not mean that one does not fight for ones beliefs; instead, the struggle is of a __________ nature.

Answer 25

nonviolent

Explanation:

This is the way pacifists believe that we should deal with our problems passive resistance. Well known pacifists include Mohandas K Gandhi and Martin Luther King.

Question 26

The use of biological, chemical, and nuclear weapons in war against our enemies would be considered by many to be immoral because these weapons could potentially harm many innocent civilians and we have a duty to ________ harm we cause to them.

Answer 26

minimize

Explanation:

It is impossible for governments to make an undertaking not to harm any civilians at all. Unfortunately, wars cause harm to civilians as well. However, governments have a duty to minimize as far as possible the risk of harm to civilians; for example, by not bombing residential areas.

Question 27

The policy of deterrence involves threatening to _________ and inflict unacceptable damage on an adversary in order to discourage attack.

Answer 27

retaliate

Explanation:

To support the deterrence strategy, large stockpiles of nuclear, biological and chemical weapons were maintained by the US during the Cold War.

Question 28

In the US, the Constitution states that only ________ can declare war, yet President George W Bush authorized an attack on Afghanistan without a Congressional declaration of war and so the question arises as to whether Presidents can ethically bypass the spirit of the Constitution in this way and personally possess the authority to wage war.

Answer 28

Congress

Explanation:

The Constitution contains this provision in order to maintain a system of checks and balances in the government as well as to ensure the legitimacy of the proposed war action. No one person alone should have the authority to declare war.

Question 29

The just war tradition states that it is acceptable to go to war to protect innocent persons from harm and to protect a state or its people from unfair __________.

Answer 29

aggression

Question 30

Pacifists believe that war is always ineffective and never justified, even when __________.

Answer 30

legitimate

Explanation:

Pacifism is based on the theory that peaceful relations, rather than confrontational ones or violence, should be the governing force surrounding all human interrelations. Pacifism dictates that disputes should be resolved through negotiation, surrender, or resettlement.

Question 31

Before establishing war, the __________, or Jus Ad Bellum, should be consulted to determine whether entering into war is justifiable.

Answer 31

Law to War

Question 32

In war, the distinction between combatants and noncombatants is fundamental and the just war theory states that it is acceptable to attack combatants in a just cause and not only is it unacceptable to attack noncombatants but strong steps must be taken to _____________ them.

Answer 32

avoid harming

Explanation:

Noncombatants are the innocent victims who are not involved in the fighting women, children, etc.

Question 33

It is widely accepted that wars to _______ another land are morally unacceptable.

Answer 33

conquer

Explanation:

Nations are entitled to territorial integrity and political independence.

Question 34

Some philosophers believe that where an invasion or military attack has occurred, countries have an immediate right to retaliate and defend themselves, but in the absence of such an event, military action is only justifiable where authorization has been obtained from an _____________ body.

Answer 34

international

Explanation:

These thinkers believe that bodies such as the United Nations or NATO have the authority to approve such actions and that the issues will be carefully analyzed by them so that the chances of an unjust war are reduced.

Question 35

Preemption refers to military action that is taken first in self-defense and may be morally justifiable where there is strong evidence that an attack is ________ and that waiting could make self-defense more uncertain and complicated.

Answer 35

imminent

Explanation:

This is the definition of preemption. Making moral judgments on preemption are extremely difficult and would depend on the circumstances of each case.

Question 36

Most people would agree that a war initiated to remove an oppressive government would be ethically acceptable to protect human ______ and ensure justice.

Answer 36

rights

Explanation:

Oppressive governments breach many ethical principles and their removal would be justified.

Question 37

Military intervention by one state in another may be justifiable to protect _________ or to prevent very serious breaches of human rights, but these measures must be taken very carefully so that war is not overused as a means of solving problems.

Answer 37

alliances

Explanation:

The security of a state can in some measure be attributable to the alliances it has made with other states. So, by protecting these alliances, they are also bolstering their own self-defense systems.

Question 38

The term __________ damage refers to noncombatants who have been killed as a consequence of an attack on a justifiable military target and is a sensitive ethical issue.

Answer 38

collateral

Explanation:

Question 39

Many people believe that collateral damage is morally acceptable to win the war, _______ it, or to save their own soldiers’ lives.

Answer 39

shorten

Explanation:

If the war can be shortened by an attack that will destroy an important military installation but at the same time kill many noncombatants, then these people believe that collateral damage is acceptable.

Question 40

Some philosophers believe that actions in our self-interest have moral limits, and hence, attacks at military sites which will cause noncombatant casualties must be proven beyond a reasonable doubt to be essential to winning or shortening the war. Steps must be taken to minimize harm to noncombatants and where excessive numbers of noncombatant lives are endangered, then the action should be _______, even if it will mean losing the war.

Answer 40

avoided

Explanation:

Where the cost in innocent human lives is too high, the moral justification for collateral damage is overridden.

Question 41

Some people contend that we need to change the way we treat the environment today to create a sustainable society, as we have ethical responsibilities to the ______ generations of the citizens of the world.

Answer 41

future

Explanation:

Our treatment of the environment today could impact the health and well-being of the people born in the future. Time is not a relevant factor here we owe not only present people a duty of care but also those in the future.

Question 42

There are many opponents to environmental sustainability and many challenge the existence of environmental problems such as global warming on the grounds that such moves will lead to ________ loss.

Answer 42

economic

Explanation:

These people argue that environmental sustainability is morally unacceptable as people may lose their jobs, prices and taxes may rise, etc.

Question 43

On matters of environmental sustainability, both harms and benefits will result and balancing the two will be difficult, but many _________________ view this as essential for the long-term future of the Earth.

Answer 43

environmentalists

Explanation:

This is a great ethical responsibility balancing harms and benefits. It is important that an overall, long-term perspective be maintained when making these decisions.

Question 44

According to _______, a land ethic reflects a conviction of individual responsibility for the health of the land.

Answer 44

Leopold

Explanation:

Environmentalist Aldo Leopold believed that land owners were the biggest obstacle to conservation efforts on private land. He thought that individual ethics (land ethic) were needed to motivate land owners and that economic incentives and legal restrictions were ineffective.

Question 45

Environmental degradation is an inevitable consequence of industrialization and should be distributed fairly, but studies in the US have shown that the burdens are mainly borne by the poor, ________ communities.

Answer 45

minority

Explanation:

Various studies from the 1970s, 80s and 90s have shown that toxic waste grounds are primarily located in minority neighborhoods. This is because rich, middle class white people object to having such waste products in their areas and have enough clout to have their objections adhered to.

Question 46

____________________ occurs when an unusually high percentage of polluting industries and hazardous waste facilities are located in poor minority communities.

Answer 46

Environmental racism

Explanation:

According to the theory of environmental racism, residents of white, middle and upper class neighborhoods have sufficient political influence to keep these facilities out of their neighborhoods while poor minorities do not.

Question 47

We use nonhuman living things for a variety of purposes; for example, we kill and eat certain animals and use them in medical experiments. However, some philosophers believe that it is morally reprehensible that we use animals in this way and that it is a form of ______________.

Answer 47

Discrimination

Explanation:

Peter Singer calls this type of discrimination ‘speciesism’ whereby we limit moral worth to humans only.

Question 48

Some philosophers believe that the strongest case against human _______ is the argument of distributive justice.

Answer 48

Cloning

Explanation:

By pouring money into developing and perfecting the techniques of cloning humans, we are potentially denying more important and urgent uses of that money; for example, to alleviate poverty, eradicate childhood diseases, etc.

Question 49

In 2001, Florida banned gay persons from ________ children, dismissing the claim of discrimination by the gay plaintiff.

Answer 49

adopting

Explanation:

Judge James Lawrence ruled against discrimination on the grounds that there was no fundamental right to adoption.

Question 50

According to the Society of Professional Journalists Code of Ethics, reporters should seek the truth and report it, act independently, minimize harm and respect colleagues, subjects, and sources, and be ___________.

Answer 50

accountable

Explanation:

Journalists need to justify their reports, examine complaints from others, admit errors and correct them speedily, expose unethical behavior, and maintain the high standards they expect of others.