Ethical and Professional Practice of Science Flashcards
Define
Stanford prison experiment
a 1971 social psychology experiment, with questionable ethics, that attempted to investigate the psychological effects of perceived power, focusing on the struggle between prisoners and prison officers
Define
Informed consent
permission granted in full knowledge of the possible consequences, typically that which is given by a patient to a doctor for treatment with knowledge of the possible risks and benefits
Definition
guiding principles for more ethical use of animals in testing. They include: replacement, reduction and refinement
The 3Rs
Define
STAR technique
a structured manner of responding to a behavioral-based interview question by discussing the specific situation, task, action, and result of the situation you are describing
Definition
a type of bias that occurs in published academic research. It occurs when the outcome of an experiment or research study influences the decision whether to publish or otherwise distribute it
Publication bias
Definition
One of the 3Rs which specifies that, where possible, methods that minimise the number of animals used per experiment should be used in scientific research
Reduction
What are the two approaches to animal research?
Utilitarian view
Deontological view
Definition
animals that have a backbone or spinal column, also called vertebrae. These animals include fish, birds, mammals, amphibians, and reptiles
Vertebrate
Define
Andrew Wakefield
a discredited former British doctor who became an anti-vaccine activist. He was a gastroenterologist until he was struck off the UK medical register for unethical behaviour, misconduct and fraud
Define
Nuremberg code
a set of research ethics principles for human experimentation set as a result of the subsequent Nuremberg trials at the end of the Second World War
Who was the first person to clone a dog?
Woo Suk Hwang
Definition
a discredited former British doctor who became an anti-vaccine activist. He was a gastroenterologist until he was struck off the UK medical register for unethical behaviour, misconduct and fraud
Andrew Wakefield
Define
Declaration of Helsinki
a statement of ethical principles for medical research involving human subjects, including research on identifiable human material and data
Define
Peer review
evaluation of scientific, academic, or professional work by others working in the same field
Define
Ethics
a set of moral principles, especially ones relating to or affirming a specified group, field, or form of conduct
What are the three ideals of science?
- Universalism
- Peer review
- Repetition
What type of animals do ethical procedures apply to?
Live, non-human vertebrates and most crustaceans
Define
Imperfect/stressful environment theory
a way of looking at human error that maintains that misconduct occurs because various institutional pressures, incentives, and constraints encourage people to commit misconduct
Definition
a structured manner of responding to a behavioral-based interview question by discussing the specific situation, task, action, and result of the situation you are describing
STAR technique
Definition
ethical theories that place special emphasis on the relationship between duty and the morality of human actions
Deontological approach
Definition
a set of research ethics principles for human experimentation set as a result of the subsequent Nuremberg trials at the end of the Second World War
Nuremberg code
Define
Replacement
One of the 3Rs which specifies that, where possible, animals should avoided or substituted for other methods in scientific research
Definition
results and ideas are judged by their own merit, not by the status or authority of the person presenting them
Universalism
Why was the Nuremberg code developed?
This was a direct response to the atrocities committed by some Nazis in the name of medical research
Definition
a statement of ethical principles for medical research involving human subjects, including research on identifiable human material and data
Declaration of Helsinki
Definition
a series of social psychology experiments with questionable ethics conducted by Stanley Milgram addressing aspects of obedience to authority figures
Milgram’s experiment
Definition
an arthropod of the large, mainly aquatic group Crustacea, such as a crab, lobster, shrimp, or barnacle
Crustacean
At Monash, ‘human research’ refers to what?
Research conducted with or about people, or their data or tissue
True or False:
You don’t need ethical approval for simply observing the behaviour of an animal in their natural habitat
False
Definition
permission granted in full knowledge of the possible consequences, typically that which is given by a patient to a doctor for treatment with knowledge of the possible risks and benefits
Informed consent
What did Harry Harlow do?
Dr Harry Harlow separated mothers and babies at birth, initially to prevent infection. He found that the babies developed a lot of behavioural problems and did not parent their own babies well, leading to further experimentation to examine why these behavioural problems developed in separated infants. His work was an important part of realising, for example, that human premature babies need to be handled and have skin contact and not just be kept warm and given food
Define
Morals
standards of behaviour; principles of right and wrong
What were the results of Milgram’s experiment?
Sixty percent of the “teachers” obeyed orders to punish the learner to the very end of the 450-volt scale! No subject stopped before reaching 300 volts!
Define
Employability
the attributes of a person that make that person able to gain and maintain employment
What are some examples of non-traditional jobs for scientists?
Law
Public policy
Actuarial work
Blogger/podcaster
Armed forces
Definition
The quality of being able to be exactly copied or reproduced
Replicability
What does the STAR technique include?
Situation
Task
Action
R esult
Define
Refinement
One of the 3Rs which specifies that, where possible, methods that minimise animal suffering and improve welfare should be used in experimental research
Which crustaceans are not covered under ethical guidelines?
Shrimps and Daphnia
Definition
One of the 3Rs which specifies that, where possible, methods that minimise animal suffering and improve welfare should be used in experimental research
Refinement
Definition
a 1971 social psychology experiment, with questionable ethics, that attempted to investigate the psychological effects of perceived power, focusing on the struggle between prisoners and prison officers
Stanford prison experiment
Define
Transferrable skills
Aptitude and knowledge acquired through personal experience such as schooling, jobs, classes, hobbies, sports etc.
Define
Utilitarian approach
an ethical theory that states that the best action is the one that maximizes utility. “Utility” is defined in various ways, usually in terms of the well-being of sentient entities
Definition
a way of looking at human error that maintains that misconduct occurs because various institutional pressures, incentives, and constraints encourage people to commit misconduct
Imperfect/stressful environment theory
Define
The Piltdown hoax
a paleoanthropological hoax in which bone fragments were presented as the fossilised remains of a previously unknown early human
Define
Fraud
wrongful or criminal deception intended to result in financial or personal gain.
Define
Universalism
results and ideas are judged by their own merit, not by the status or authority of the person presenting them
What was the skull from the Piltdown hoax actually made up of?
Part human, part orangutan
Definition
wrongful or criminal deception intended to result in financial or personal gain.
Fraud
What is the basis of the Helsinki code?
Nuremberg code
Definition
an ethical theory that states that the best action is the one that maximizes utility. “Utility” is defined in various ways, usually in terms of the well-being of sentient entities
Utilitarian approach
Which of the three ideals of science caught Hwang out?
Repetition - Stem cell researchers became sceptical about Hwang’s work when they could not repeat it
What did Milgram’s experiment involve?
In Milgram’s experiment, so-called “teachers” (who were actually the unknowing subjects of the experiment) were recruited by Milgram. They were asked to administer an electric shock of increasing intensity to a “learner” for each mistake made during the experiment. The fictitious story given to these “teachers” was that the experiment was exploring effects of punishment (for incorrect responses) on learning behaviour. The “teacher” was not aware that the “learner” in the study was actually an actor - merely simulating discomfort as the “teacher” increased the electric shocks.
Definition
The famous experiments, with questionable ethics, that psychologist Harry Harlow conducted in the 1950s on maternal deprivation in rhesus monkeys
Harlow’s experiment
Define
Woo Suk Hwang
a South Korean stem-cell researcher at the center of one of the largest investigations of scientific fraud due to the fabrication of results
What happened to Woo Suk Hwang after he was caught?
His papers were retracted
Definition
One of the 3Rs which specifies that, where possible, animals should avoided or substituted for other methods in scientific research
Replacement
Definition
A former geology professor at Yale University, who was arrested on charges of sexual assault and child porn possession
Tony Lasaga
Definition
a way of looking at human error that maintains that complex systems would be fine, were it not for the erratic behaviour of some unreliable people in it
Bad apple theory
Definition
five aspects of animal welfare under human control. They include: Freedoms from hunger or thirst; Freedom from discomfort; Freedom from pain, injury or disease; Freedom to express normal behaviour; Freedom from fear and distress
Five freedoms
Definition
a German physicist who briefly rose to prominence after a series of apparent breakthroughs with semiconductors that were later discovered to be fraudulent after using the same data in multiple papers
Jan Hendrik Schon
Define
Bad apple theory
a way of looking at human error that maintains that complex systems would be fine, were it not for the erratic behaviour of some unreliable people in it
Define
Jan Hendrik Schon
a German physicist who briefly rose to prominence after a series of apparent breakthroughs with semiconductors that were later discovered to be fraudulent after using the same data in multiple papers
What are the limits of peer review in detecting fraud?
Referees assume data have been honestly collected and focus more on logic and originality
Define
Crustacean
an arthropod of the large, mainly aquatic group Crustacea, such as a crab, lobster, shrimp, or barnacle
What is an example of a drug trial where participants were not adequately warned about side-effects?
Pfizer trial in Nigeria
Definition
Aptitude and knowledge acquired through personal experience such as schooling, jobs, classes, hobbies, sports etc.
Transferrable skills
Define
Publication bias
a type of bias that occurs in published academic research. It occurs when the outcome of an experiment or research study influences the decision whether to publish or otherwise distribute it
Why was Zimbardo’s experiment aborted less than half way through?
psychological damage to prisoners, such as depression, and sadism on the part of guards
Why wouldn’t universalism have caught Schön out?
most of us are impressed by reputation, and Schön was working with accomplished scientists in a famous laboratory
Define
Vertebrate
animals that have a backbone or spinal column, also called vertebrae. These animals include fish, birds, mammals, amphibians, and reptiles
Define
Tony Lasaga
A former geology professor at Yale University, who was arrested on charges of sexual assault and child porn possession
Definition
a paleoanthropological hoax in which bone fragments were presented as the fossilised remains of a previously unknown early human
The Piltdown hoax
Which of the three ideals of science meant that Schön was caught?
Peer review - similar graphs were detected in different papers. Further checks revealed more examples of duplications
Repetition - People trying to repeat, or extend, Schön’s work must also have become sceptical
Which two researchers found that given the right set of circumstances, ordinary people will do things that are immoral or unethical, and even cruel?
Milgram and Zimbardo
What several factors can impact employability?
- Ability to identify suitable job opportunities
- Knowledge and abilities relating to a specific job
- Self-presentation
- External factors (i.e. job market, personal circumstances etc.)
Present day debates about the rights of animals go back a long way, but for our purposes we can start in the mid-1600s when Descartes claimed what?
He set out his arguments for animals being distinct from humans. Humans, he thought, were capable of complex functions including thought, whereas animals reacted automatically to stimuli and did not feel pain.
Define
Replicability
The quality of being able to be exactly copied or reproduced
What did Zimbardo’s experiment involve?
Volunteers were assigned roles as ‘prisoners’ or ‘guards’. A part of the design involved humiliating prisoners in various ways (e.g. stripping and searching). The guards did whatever they judged necessary to keep the prisoners in order.
True or False:
Informed consent does not always have to be written
False
What are some criticisms of Zimbardo’s experiment?
Criticisms of the experiment include that there were no controls, that Zimbardo was not a neutral observer because he superintended the experiment, and that it does not enlighten us about behaviour because the volunteers were role-playing.
Definition
inclination or prejudice for or against one person or group, especially in a way considered to be unfair
Bias
Define
The 3Rs
guiding principles for more ethical use of animals in testing. They include: replacement, reduction and refinement
Definition
a South Korean stem-cell researcher at the center of one of the largest investigations of scientific fraud due to the fabrication of results
Woo Suk Hwang
What are the five freedoms?
- From Hunger and Thirst: access to fresh water and good diet
- From Discomfort: appropriate environment including shelter, resting area
- From Pain, Injury or Disease: prevention / treatment
- To Express Normal Behaviour: space, facilities, company of the animal’s own kind
- From Fear and Distress: conditions and treatment which avoid mental suffering
What was the first major turning point regarding human ethics?
Development of the Nuremberg code after WWII
Define
Deontological approach
ethical theories that place special emphasis on the relationship between duty and the morality of human actions
Define
Reduction
One of the 3Rs which specifies that, where possible, methods that minimise the number of animals used per experiment should be used in scientific research
Define
Harlow’s experiment
The famous experiments, with questionable ethics, that psychologist Harry Harlow conducted in the 1950s on maternal deprivation in rhesus monkeys
Why are Milgram and Zimbardo’s experiments considered unethical?
The controversy surrounding their experiments centres on the fact that the participants were not informed about the experiment (always a problem in psychology studies), the researchers scientific competence (they participated in the experiments, and in Zimbardo’s case were not controlled studies), and that researchers ran experiments in such a way that they harmed the participants.
What are the 3Rs?
Replacement
Reduction
Refinement
Define
Milgram’s experiment
a series of social psychology experiments with questionable ethics conducted by Stanley Milgram addressing aspects of obedience to authority figures
Definition
standards of behaviour; principles of right and wrong
Morals
Define
Five freedoms
five aspects of animal welfare under human control. They include: Freedoms from hunger or thirst; Freedom from discomfort; Freedom from pain, injury or disease; Freedom to express normal behaviour; Freedom from fear and distress
Definition
evaluation of scientific, academic, or professional work by others working in the same field
Peer review
Definition
the attributes of a person that make that person able to gain and maintain employment
Employability
Define
Bias
inclination or prejudice for or against one person or group, especially in a way considered to be unfair
Definition
a set of moral principles, especially ones relating to or affirming a specified group, field, or form of conduct
Ethics
