Essay flashcards
1
Q
Define Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM).
A
ICZM is a holistic, long-term coastal management approach balancing human needs and environmental preservation across the entire coastal zone.
2
Q
Key stakeholders involved in ICZM?
A
Local communities, businesses, governments, ensuring sustainable economic development without compromising the environment.
3
Q
What coastal concept is central to ICZM implementation?
A
Littoral cells—managed individually via Shoreline Management Plans (SMPs) for tailored strategies.
4
Q
Adaptive management role in ICZM?
A
Plans evolve as environmental/social conditions change, allowing flexible coastal management solutions (AO2).
5
Q
Example of methods promoted by ICZM.
A
Soft engineering (managed retreat/beach nourishment) that works in harmony with natural coastal processes.
6
Q
Broader geographical concept underpinning ICZM.
A
Sustainable development, ensuring ecosystem preservation, biodiversity, and human well-being are balanced.
7
Q
Summarize ICZM’s sustainable management approach.
A
Balances environmental integrity and economic development through adaptive, holistic coastal zone management.
8
Q
Explain how shoreline management plans (SMPs) manage UK coastlines.
A
(Essay 2)
9
Q
Purpose and policy options within SMPs.
A
Determine appropriate coastal policies (“No Active Intervention,” “Strategic Realignment,” “Hold the Line,” “Advance the Line”) based on local conditions.
10
Q
Example illustrating SMP policy selection.
A
Happisburgh (Norfolk): “No Active Intervention” due to high defence costs (£6m) vs property value (£4-7m), environmentally driven sediment concerns.
11
Q
Importance of Cost-Benefit Analysis (CBA) in SMP decisions.
A
Assesses economic viability by comparing defence costs to protected property value, informing policy decisions.
12
Q
Environmental Impact Assessments (EIAs) role in SMPs.
A
Evaluate potential environmental/social impacts of coastal policies before implementation, ensuring informed decision-making.
13
Q
Example of SMP policy leading to managed realignment.
A
Blackwater Estuary (Essex): managed realignment allowed salt marsh formation, reducing flood risks despite farmer conflicts (land loss).
14
Q
Summarize SMP role in coastal management.
A
SMPs integrate economic, environmental, and social factors, balancing coastal protection needs with sustainable resource management.
15
Q
Explain how coastal realignment provides sustainable solutions to erosion.
A
(Essay 3)
16
Q
Define managed coastal realignment.
A
Allowing natural erosion processes while relocating coastlines inland, creating sustainable habitats like wetlands.
17
Q
Environmental benefits of coastal realignment.
A
Creates ecosystem services: carbon sequestration, flood mitigation, biodiversity enhancement, habitat restoration (DEFRA’s SMP context).
18
Q
Cost-effectiveness compared to hard engineering.
A
Realignment reduces continuous defence costs; chosen in Happisburgh (Norfolk) due to cost-effectiveness compared to property defence.
19
Q
Example demonstrating cost-driven realignment policy.
A
Happisburgh adopted ‘no active intervention’ due to excessive defence costs relative to property values.
20
Q
How realignment adapts to climate change.
A
Prepares coasts for future sea-level rise, aligns with DEFRA’s net-zero emissions target by 2043, demonstrating adaptive management.
21
Q
Summarize sustainability of coastal realignment.
A
Environmentally beneficial, economically sustainable, adapts to long-term coastal change challenges effectively.
22
Q
Explain how classification of coasts by geology and sea-level change aids understanding coastal landscapes.
A
(Essay 4)
23
Q
Geological factors influencing coastal classification.
A
Rock type (lithology): hard resistant rocks (granite) form rocky coasts, soft rocks (sandstone/clay) erode easily forming sandy coasts/estuaries.
24
Q
Impact of rock structure on coastal morphology.
A
Concordant coasts (parallel rock layers) vs discordant coasts (perpendicular layers) affect bay/headland/cliff formation.
25
Sea-level change influencing coastal classification.
Emergent coasts (uplifted land, relative sea-level fall) feature raised beaches; submergent coasts (land sinking, rising sea-levels) feature rias/flooded valleys.
26
Examples of emergent and submergent coasts.
Emergent: Raised beaches from tectonic uplift; Submergent: Rias (flooded valleys, Kingsbridge Estuary, Devon).
27
How classification links to broader environmental processes.
Highlights connections between climate change, tectonics, geological stability, sea-level fluctuations in shaping coastlines.
28
Summarize significance of geological/sea-level classifications.
Provides comprehensive understanding of coastal feature formation, linking geology, sea-level dynamics, and coastal evolution over time.
29
Explain how high-energy and low-energy environments influence coastal landscapes.
(Essay 5)
30
Define characteristics of high-energy coastal environments.
Powerful waves, long fetches, strong winds, predominantly erosional processes creating cliffs/headlands (e.g., Old Harry's Rock).
31
Typical landforms of high-energy coasts.
Headlands, cliffs, wave-cut platforms, arches, stacks from erosion of less resistant rock around resistant headlands.
32
Define low-energy coastal environment characteristics.
Calm waves, weaker winds, dominated by deposition where sediment accumulation exceeds erosion (e.g., Chichester Harbour).
33
Landforms typical of low-energy environments.
Beaches, spits, expansive sand/shingle deposition due to gentle wave action allowing sediment accumulation.
34
Comparison between high-energy and low-energy coasts.
High-energy environments produce erosional features; low-energy environments form depositional features due to wave energy differences.
35
Summarize wave-energy impact on coastal landscapes.
Coastal landscape formation directly influenced by wave energy, determining erosional (high-energy) vs depositional (low-energy) dominant processes and landforms.
36
Explain how submergent Dalmatian coasts and fjords form due to geological processes.
(Essay 1)
37
Geological processes forming Dalmatian coasts.
Tectonic collision (African/Eurasian plates, Alpine Orogeny) creates parallel folds—anticlines (ridges) and synclines (valleys).
38
How sea-level rise shapes Dalmatian coasts.
Rising sea floods parallel synclines, forming linear islands separated by submerged valleys, e.g., Dalmatian coast (Adriatic Sea).
39
Formation and features of fjords.
Flooded deep glacial U-shaped valleys, steep-sided, straight profiles, truncated interlocking spurs due to glacial erosion.
40
Fjord example illustrating distinctive features.
Norway's Sognefjord: 1.3 km deep, steep sides, submerged entrance lip (terminal moraine).
41
Geological impact on fjord shape vs rias.
Fjords deep, straight-sided due to intense glacial erosion; rias shallow, dendritic from river erosion.
42
Sea-level changes contributing to submergent features.
Holocene sea-level rise flooded glacial valleys (fjords) and tectonically shaped valleys (Dalmatian coasts), creating distinctive submerged landscapes.
43
Summarize geological formation of Dalmatian coasts and fjords.
Tectonic/glacial processes shape distinct coastal landscapes, inundated by rising seas, forming linear Dalmatian islands and deep fjords.
44
Explain how bedding planes, joints, and faults influence cliff morphology and erosion rates.
(Essay 2)
45
Impact of bedding planes on coastal erosion.
Weak layers between rock strata exploited by marine erosion (hydraulic action), increasing cliff erosion rates, creating wave-cut notches/caves.
46
Example illustrating bedding plane impacts.
Weakly bonded bedding planes exploited by erosion, accelerating cave and notch formation (e.g., coastal cliffs at Bantry Bay).
47
Fault impacts on coastal erosion processes.
Large-scale fractures weaken rock, accelerating erosion rates, creating headlands, bays (e.g., Bantry Bay’s fault-driven erosion).
48
Example showing faults significantly increasing erosion.
Fault displacement in Carboniferous Limestone at Bantry Bay accelerates erosion, rapidly forming coastal landforms.
49
Influence of jointing on coastal erosion.
Joints provide entry points for hydraulic action, significantly increasing erosion and cliff recession rates, shaping caves and arches quickly.
50
Joint example driving rapid coastal feature formation.
Purbeck Limestone (Lulworth Crumple), intense jointing creates rapid erosion and landform formation (caves, arches).
51
Summarize structural geology's influence on coastal erosion.
Bedding planes, faults, joints greatly accelerate erosion by exploiting rock weaknesses, shaping complex cliff profiles rapidly.
52
Explain how differential erosion shapes cliff profiles and recession rates.
(Essay 3)
53
Definition of differential erosion.
Varying erosion rates of resistant vs. less resistant rocks create distinct cliff profiles and landforms.
54
Impact on cliffs with resistant and less resistant rock layers.
Soft rocks (clay) erode quickly, creating undercuts; harder rocks (chalk) form overhangs/benches, determining overall recession rate.
55
Example illustrating differential erosion impacts.
Soft clay overlying chalk erodes faster, driving cliff recession and forming complex cliff profiles (steep top, gentle base).
56
How rock permeability affects differential erosion.
Groundwater in permeable layers (sandstone) builds pressure causing mass movement/slumping, forming complex cliff morphology.
57
Impact of groundwater accumulation behind cliffs.
Saturation increases pressure, causes mass movements (slumping/sliding), further altering cliff profile complexity.
58
Influence of differential erosion on cliff recession rates.
Overall cliff recession rate dictated by weakest rock layer’s erosion, creating varied coastline morphology.
59
Summarize differential erosion’s coastal impact.
Creates significant cliff profile variations, recession differences due to interplay between rock strength and permeability.
60
Explain how different rock types influence coastal recession rates (igneous vs sedimentary).
(Essay 4)
61
Igneous rock characteristics influencing erosion resistance.
Interlocking crystals (granite, basalt), few fractures, slow erosion (<0.1cm/year), highly resistant to coastal recession.
62
Example of highly resistant igneous coastline.
Granite cliffs, very slow erosion (less than 0.1 cm/year), minimal fractures, highly resistant to marine erosion.
63
Contrast sedimentary rocks in erosion susceptibility.
Sandstone/limestone erode faster (up to 10 cm/year); weak bonding (calcite in limestone), easily weathered chemically.
64
Specific example illustrating rapid erosion of sedimentary coastlines.
Holderness Coast (boulder clay): rapid erosion (2-10m/year), demonstrating vulnerability of unconsolidated sedimentary geology.
65
Why sedimentary rocks erode rapidly.
Weakly bonded particles, chemical weathering susceptibility, geological structure vulnerability (bedding planes, joints).
66
Comparison of recession rates: sedimentary vs igneous.
Sedimentary rocks significantly faster erosion than igneous, shaping coastal recession patterns and landscape changes drastically.
67
Summarize lithology influence on coastal recession.
Rock type determines coastal recession rates; resistant igneous slow, sedimentary and unconsolidated sediments rapidly eroding.
68
Explain how permeable and impermeable rocks influence cliff profiles and stability.
(Essay 5)
69
Influence of permeable rocks on cliff profiles.
Permeable rocks (limestone/sandstone) allow water percolation, chemical weathering, slumping, creating complex cliff shapes.
70
Impact of permeable-over-impermeable rock strata.
Groundwater accumulates, increases pore pressure, triggers mass movements (rotational slumping), creates varied cliff profiles.
71
Example of permeable/impermeable cliff stability issues.
Saturation (pore water pressure) lubricates permeable rock weaknesses, destabilizes cliffs, leading to mass movement (slumps/slides).
72
Impermeable rock role in cliff profile formation.
Impermeable layers (clay) prevent drainage, causing saturation above, reducing friction, accelerating slumping/sliding.
73
Cliff profile characteristics due to permeable-impermeable interaction.
Combination steep-gentle slopes from differential erosion, groundwater pressure, mass movement (slumps/slides).
74
Example highlighting permeable/impermeable impact.
Holderness coast: permeable boulder clay saturation drives slumping, cliff retreat (over 2m/year recession).
75
Summarize permeable-impermeable influence on cliffs.
Rock permeability significantly shapes cliff stability, erosion, weathering processes, producing distinctive cliff profiles and recession rates.
76
Explain how constructive and destructive waves influence beach morphology and sediment profiles.
(Essay 1)
77
Characteristics and impact of constructive waves on beaches.
Low energy, long wavelengths, low frequency; push sediment up beach, build steep beaches, strong swash, weak backwash, sediment sorted by size.
78
Describe sediment sorting by constructive waves.
Coarser material (pebbles) deposited at back, finer sand closer to water, creating clear stratification due to weak backwash.
79
Contrast destructive waves' impact on beach morphology.
High energy, short wavelengths, high frequency; strong backwash removes sediment, flattening beach profiles.
80
Describe sediment profiles created by destructive waves.
Sediment size decreases towards water; erosion dominates in winter storms, forming storm ridges and flatter beach profiles.
81
Cyclical nature of beach morphology changes.
Constructive waves rebuild beaches during calm periods; destructive waves flatten beaches during storms, cyclically changing beach shape.
82
Summarize influence of wave types on beaches.
Wave energy and frequency determine sediment transport and deposition, influencing beach steepness, sediment sorting, and morphology cyclically.
83
Explain how marine erosion processes (hydraulic action, abrasion, attrition, corrosion) form coastal landforms.
(Essay 2)
84
Define hydraulic action and coastal erosion impact.
High-pressure wave air compression in rock cracks, expanding cracks, weakening cliffs rapidly, especially effective on softer materials like boulder clay.
85
Hydraulic action’s ideal coastal conditions.
High-energy destructive waves impacting soft, unconsolidated cliffs, creating rapid coastal recession (e.g., Holderness Coast).
86
Describe abrasion (corrasion) and its erosion effect.
Waves throw sediment at cliffs, wearing away surfaces, breaking rocks into smaller fragments, effective with high-energy destructive waves.
87
Examples of abrasion’s significant erosion role.
Holderness Coast: rapid erosion accelerated by abrasion on soft chalk/mudstone cliffs, further weakening cliff base.
88
Attrition and corrosion contributions to erosion.
Attrition rounds sediment particles through collision; corrosion chemically dissolves soluble rocks, enhancing coastal erosion overall.
89
Combined impact of marine erosion processes on landforms.
Forms wave-cut platforms, cliffs, caves, arches, stacks, beaches; erosion rate varies by wave energy and rock lithology.
90
Explain how a wave-cut platform is formed.
(Essay 3)
91
Initial process forming wave-cut notch.
Destructive waves erode cliff base (between high/low tide) through hydraulic action (compressed air) and abrasion (sediment impact).
92
Resulting cliff instability and collapse mechanism.
Overhanging rock collapses due to gravity (mass movement), retreating coastline inland, leaving uneroded low-tide rock platform.
93
Wave-cut platform formation and characteristics.
Collapsed cliff retreat leaves flat, sloping rock surface exposed at low tide; slopes seaward (~4°), may feature weathered rock pools.
94
Long-term wave-cut platform dynamics.
Continuous erosion/collapse cycles gradually extend platform inland, coastal recession ongoing.
95
Connection to broader coastal landform evolution.
Formation part of erosional sequence including cliffs, caves, arches, stacks, and stumps due to marine erosion processes.
96
Summarize wave-cut platform formation process.
Marine erosion forms notches, cliff collapse retreats coastline, leaving behind flat platforms shaped by erosion/weathering cycles.
97
Explain how longshore drift contributes to spit and tombolo formation.
(Essay 4)
98
Spit formation through longshore drift.
Sediment carried along drift-aligned coastlines, deposited when wave energy dissipates at bays/river mouths, forming elongated spits extending seaward (e.g., Spurn Head).
99
How recurved spits form.
Wave refraction/opposing currents cause sediment deposition at distal spit end, curving spit inward (hooked spits).
100
Tombolo formation via longshore drift.
Spit extends offshore until connecting to an island, sediment deposition linking island to mainland.
101
Alternative tombolo formation on swash-aligned coasts.
Wave refraction around islands creates calm deposition zone behind island, building sediment bridge to mainland (e.g., St Ninian’s Tombolo, Shetland).
102
Dynamic equilibrium in spit/tombolo formation.
Sediment deposition balanced with erosion from waves/currents; continuous sediment transport shapes evolving landforms.
103
Summarize longshore drift’s role in spits and tombolos.
Critical sediment transport/deposition process forming spits/tombolos, demonstrating dynamic coastal landform interaction and evolution.
104
Explain how barrier beaches and offshore bars are formed.
(Essay 5)
105
Barrier beach formation mechanisms.
Sediment deposited by longshore drift extending across bays, connecting coasts, trapping lagoons behind ridges (e.g., Slapton Ley, Devon).
106
Alternative barrier beach formation via sea-level rise.
Rising sea-level pushes sediment onto gently sloping seabed, constructive waves form barrier beaches by depositing sand/shingle.
107
Characteristics and formation of offshore bars.
Sediment moved offshore by destructive waves’ backwash, deposited at nearshore/offshore boundary, forming ridges parallel to coast.
108
Conditions leading to offshore bar deposition.
Wave energy dissipation in shallow nearshore zone; sediment accumulates forming bars exposed at neap tides (e.g., Scroby Sands, Norfolk).
109
Importance of offshore bars in coastal dynamics.
Provide sediment reservoirs for beach nourishment, shaping beach profile evolution, crucial sediment cell components.
110
Summarize barrier beaches/offshore bar formation.
Formed through dynamic sediment deposition by wave action, influencing coastal morphology significantly through deposition patterns.
111
Explain how human activities like dredging and coastal management accelerate coastal recession.
(Essay 1)
112
How does dredging accelerate coastal recession?
Removes sediment from seabed/estuaries, destabilizing beaches, increasing erosion vulnerability (e.g., UK estuaries, sediment extraction for construction/shipping).
113
Effect of dredging on sediment budget.
Disrupts sediment cell equilibrium; reduced sediment supply increases beach instability, accelerating coastal erosion.
114
Example illustrating human-driven sediment disruption.
Nile Delta: Aswan Dam reduced sediment from 130 million tonnes to 15 million tonnes annually; coastal recession rates increased from 20-25m/year to over 200m/year.
115
How coastal management accelerates recession downstream.
Groynes trap sediment locally, starving downdrift areas, increasing erosion significantly (e.g., Mappleton to Cowden on Holderness Coast).
116
Broader geographical concept related to sediment disruption.
Sediment cell theory: human activities (dams, groynes, dredging) disrupt equilibrium, accelerating erosion elsewhere in the cell.
117
Summarize human influence on coastal recession.
Human activities (dredging, dams, coastal defences) disrupt natural sediment flow, significantly accelerating erosion rates and coastal recession.
118
Explain how wind direction, fetch, and tides influence coastal erosion rates.
(Essay 2)
119
Wind direction’s impact on coastal erosion.
Prevailing onshore winds produce powerful waves directly hitting coasts, accelerating erosion significantly.
120
Example illustrating fetch effect on erosion rates.
North Norfolk coastline: 1,600 km fetch (Norwegian/North Seas), dominant north winds cause erosion up to 8m/year.
121
Define fetch and its erosion influence.
Distance over which wind blows uninterrupted; longer fetch = stronger, more erosive waves impacting coastlines intensely.
122
Tidal pattern influence on coastal erosion.
High tides enable waves to reach further inland; increased wave energy significantly accelerates backshore erosion.
123
IPCC prediction linking tidal rise to coastal erosion.
1 cm sea-level rise causes approximately 1m horizontal coastline erosion, highlighting vulnerability to tidal sea-level increases.
124
Summarize combined impacts of wind, fetch, and tides.
Wind direction, fetch length, and tidal patterns significantly amplify coastal erosion rates through enhanced wave energy and reach.
125
Explain how subaerial processes and mass movement accelerate coastal retreat.
(Essay 3)
126
Impact of weathering processes on coastal erosion.
Weathering (hydration, salt crystallisation) weakens rock cohesion, making cliffs more vulnerable to marine erosion and mass movement.
127
Example showing subaerial processes’ erosion influence.
Overstrand, North Norfolk: chemical weathering/hydration above seawalls causes rapid slumping/cliff collapse despite defences.
128
How wave-cut notches trigger mass movement.
Marine erosion at cliff base creates notches; weakened cliff collapses through slumping/sliding, rapidly retreating coastlines.
129
Role of rainfall in mass movement acceleration.
Rain infiltrates permeable rocks, increasing pore water pressure, reducing stability, triggering rotational slumping/slides.
130
Example demonstrating accelerated recession through mass movement.
Holderness Coast: rotational slumping in boulder clay due to rainfall and marine erosion, recession exceeding 2m/year.
131
Summarize mass movement/subaerial impact on recession.
Subaerial processes (weathering, rainfall) weaken cliffs, mass movement accelerates recession by causing frequent collapses.
132
Explain how local and global factors influence coastal flood risks.
(Essay 4)
133
Key local factors increasing coastal flooding risk.
Low elevation (Maldives, highest point 2.3m), subsidence, vegetation removal (mangrove clearance).
134
Example highlighting low elevation risk.
Maldives highest elevation 2.3m; a 50cm sea-level rise could submerge 77% of the land, threatening population/agriculture/tourism.
135
Impact of vegetation (mangrove) removal.
Loss of mangroves increases flood vulnerability by removing natural wave energy buffers (e.g., Bangladesh’s delta).
136
Subsidence as local flood risk factor.
Natural/human-induced subsidence (groundwater abstraction) lowers land elevation, intensifies flood risk (Bangladesh).
137
Global factor: climate-driven sea-level rise.
IPCC predicts 18-59cm rise by 2100; significant flooding risk for densely populated low-lying areas like Bangladesh/Maldives.
138
Example showing interaction of local/global factors.
Bangladesh: 40cm sea-level rise submerges 11% of land; local subsidence amplifies risk, potentially displacing millions.
139
Summarize combined local/global flood risk factors.
Local geography (elevation/subsidence) interacts with global sea-level rise, significantly magnifying coastal flood risks.
140
Explain impacts of storm surges on low-lying coastal environments.
(Essay 5)
141
Define storm surges and their cause.
Temporary sea-level rises due to low-pressure cyclones pushing seawater towards land, intensified during high tides.
142
Example showing storm surge impact on low-lying coasts.
Bangladesh’s Cyclone Sidr (2007): funnel-shaped Bay of Bengal amplified surge, causing severe flooding, 15,000 deaths, infrastructure loss.
143
Impact of storm surges on erosion and infrastructure.
Surge-driven high waves rapidly erode coasts, destroy infrastructure (roads, homes, water supply), amplifying disaster severity.
144
Example of storm surge impacts in developed areas.
UK’s Storm Xavier (2013): 3-6m surge flooded 1,400 homes, extensive damage in Norfolk, highlighting high vulnerability despite defences.
145
Importance of tidal conditions in storm surge severity.
High tides (spring tides) intensify storm surge flooding extent, causing severe inundation far inland.
146
Contrast between protected/unprotected regions from storm surges.
UK (Thames Barrier) mitigated Storm Xavier impacts vs Bangladesh lacking defenses, facing catastrophic surge impacts.
147
Summarize storm surge risks to low-lying coasts.
Storm surges significantly amplify flooding and erosion in low-lying coastal environments, especially in vulnerable, undefended regions.
148
Explain how climate change is increasing coastal flooding risks.
(Essay 1)
149
Key drivers of climate-driven coastal flooding.
Sea-level rise and intensified storms caused by climate change.
150
IPCC projections on sea-level rise and impacts.
Sea levels to rise 18-59cm by 2100 due to thermal expansion and ice melt, increasing flooding frequency/intensity in low-lying areas (e.g., Maldives).
151
Localized flooding impacts from sea-level rise.
Even normal tides cause flooding in low-lying areas (e.g., Maldives), worsened significantly by storm surges.
152
Uncertainty in sea-level rise predictions.
Predictions affected by economic development and political actions on greenhouse gases, though risk remains significant (North Norfolk protected by sea walls).
153
Influence of climate change on storm events.
Warmer oceans increase storm intensity (IPCC: cyclone intensity +2-11% by 2100), enhancing storm surges and flooding.
154
Example of infrastructure responding to climate-driven flooding.
Thames Barrier built to mitigate flooding risk in London from intensified storm events.
155
Summarize climate change's flooding impact.
Rising sea levels and stronger storms linked to climate change significantly increase coastal flooding risks, demanding adaptive coastal management.
156
Explain economic losses due to coastal erosion and flooding.
(Essay 2)
157
Direct economic losses from coastal erosion.
Property/infrastructure damage, farmland loss (e.g., South Devon Railway line 2014 collapse cost £35 million repairs, £60 million business losses).
158
Cost example of infrastructure repair/rerouting.
Road rerouting costs £150,000-£250,000 per 100 meters, illustrating significant local economic burdens.
159
Residential land value illustrating economic vulnerability.
Dorset residential land valued at up to £2.1 million per hectare, highlighting economic stakes in coastal erosion.
160
Economic impacts from coastal flooding events.
2013 North Sea flood caused over £1 billion damage, flooded 1,400 homes, disrupted transport, illustrating severe infrastructure vulnerability.
161
Sector-specific economic losses (tourism/fishing).
Tourism and fishing industries heavily affected by flooding events (e.g., Philippines: 1-meter rise could cost $6.5 billion property damage, fishing losses).
162
Magnified economic impacts in developing countries.
Lack of infrastructure/resources makes recovery from flooding harder, magnifying economic vulnerability.
163
Summarize economic impact of erosion/flooding.
Significant property/infrastructure damage, high costs of repairs, loss in tourism/fishing industries, disproportionately affecting economically vulnerable regions.
164
Explain social impacts of coastal erosion affecting stakeholders.
(Essay 3)
165
Example showing social impacts of coastal management.
Blackwater Estuary, Essex: Managed realignment created salt marshes, benefited environmentalists/local ecotourism, harmed landowners economically.
166
Division of winners/losers from coastal decisions.
Landowners compensated but lost livelihoods, local communities benefited from leisure/ecotourism, demonstrating varied stakeholder impacts.
167
Impacts on poorer populations in developing countries.
Maldives/Vietnam: Rapid erosion due to mangrove removal/unregulated development disproportionately harms poor residents lacking formal land titles.
168
Economic/social vulnerability due to lack of coordinated coastal management.
Residents bear responsibility for defences, creating financial/social burdens, exacerbating inequality and vulnerability.
169
Comparison of developed vs. developing country impacts.
Developing countries experience greater inequality; poorest populations most severely affected, lacking compensation/infrastructure.
170
Summarize social impacts of erosion.
Coastal erosion management decisions create winners/losers, disproportionately impacting vulnerable groups, especially in developing countries.
171
Explain how hard engineering strategies influence coastal processes.
(Essay 4)
172
Define hard engineering and examples.
Structures (groynes, sea walls) built to directly manage coastal erosion and sediment movement.
173
Groynes' impact on coastal sediment movement.
Trap sediment from longshore drift, building wider beaches locally but causing erosion downdrift ('terminal groyne effect').
174
Negative consequences of groynes.
Sediment starvation elsewhere along coastlines, increasing erosion rates downdrift (e.g., Holderness Coast at Mappleton–Cowden).
175
Function of sea walls in coastal protection.
Physical barriers reflecting wave energy, protecting coasts from direct erosion; modern designs dissipate energy reducing erosion impacts.
176
Negative environmental impacts of sea walls.
Older reflective sea walls reduce beach volume, redirecting wave energy; damage natural coastal environment, high maintenance needed.
177
Broader ecological impacts of hard engineering.
Altering sediment transport, wave patterns, leading to unintended ecological/environmental challenges beyond targeted protection.
178
Summarize hard engineering's coastal influence.
Directly impacts sediment movement and wave energy; locally protective but disrupts natural coastal processes, causing broader environmental consequences.
179
Explain how soft engineering strategies work with natural coastal processes.
(Essay 5)
180
Define soft engineering and its goals.
Strategies like beach nourishment/dune stabilisation complement natural processes, manage erosion sustainably.
181
How beach nourishment works with coastal processes.
Replenishes lost sediment, increases beach size, dissipates wave energy, reducing erosion (abrasion/hydraulic action) naturally.
182
Cost considerations of beach nourishment.
Requires ongoing sediment replenishment costing ~£20 million/km, sustainable but financially demanding over long term.
183
Dune stabilisation’s role in natural coastal management.
Uses vegetation (marram grass) and fences to stabilize dunes, reducing wind/water erosion naturally, preserving protective barriers.
184
Benefits and cost-effectiveness of dune stabilisation.
Initial fencing/planting (£400-2000 per 100m) relatively affordable; reduces need for costly hard engineering long term.
185
Example illustrating dune stabilisation effectiveness.
Sand dunes naturally protect coastlines; stabilisation enhances resilience against storms, preserving natural coastal defence sustainably.
186
Summarize soft engineering benefits.
Sustainable coastal protection through natural sediment management, cost-effective long-term solutions, complementing rather than disrupting natural processes.
187
Explain the concept of Shoreline Management Plans (SMPs) and their role in managing coastal areas.
(Essay 1)
188
What are Shoreline Management Plans (SMPs)?
Strategic documents managing coastal erosion, flooding, protection within the Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) framework.
189
SMPs and their connection to littoral cells.
SMPs manage coastlines divided into littoral cells—self-contained units with unique sediment sources, transfers, and sinks, preventing adverse impacts between cells.
190
How SMPs integrate stakeholders.
Coordinate efforts across administrative boundaries (local councils, communities), ensuring a unified coastal management strategy.
191
Management options outlined in SMPs.
Provide guidance on whether to "hold the line," "advance the line," implement "managed retreat," or "no active intervention" based on local factors.
192
Example illustrating SMP application.
England/Wales have 11 sediment cells, each managed individually through SMPs/sub-cells, ensuring tailored, effective management strategies.
193
Sustainability goal of SMPs.
Achieve holistic coastal management balancing environmental sustainability with human needs through informed, collaborative planning.
194
Summarize SMP's role.
SMPs strategically manage coastal risks through sustainable, stakeholder-integrated strategies tailored to specific littoral cell conditions.
195
Explain how Coastal Management Approaches (Hold the Line, Advance the Line, Managed Retreat, No Active Intervention) are decided.
(Essay 2)
196
Factors determining coastal management policies.
Decisions based on economic value, technical feasibility, social/environmental impacts, informed by Cost-Benefit Analysis (CBA) and Environmental Impact Assessments (EIAs).
197
Cost-Benefit Analysis role in decision-making.
Assesses economic viability of defences; e.g., Happisburgh, Norfolk: cost (£6m) outweighed benefits (£4-7m), leading to "No Active Intervention" policy.
198
Example illustrating economic rationale in decisions.
Happisburgh’s no active intervention policy chosen due to disproportionate defence costs versus property values, demonstrating economic prioritisation.
199
Role of Environmental Impact Assessments (EIAs).
EIAs evaluate environmental consequences; sensitive ecosystems or heritage sites may warrant "Hold the Line," whereas less vulnerable areas might adopt "Managed Retreat."
200
Management approach balancing ecological concerns.
Strategic Realignment chosen if preserving environmental integrity outweighs benefits of active intervention, promoting natural coastal processes sustainably.
201
Sustainability consideration in decision-making.
Decisions balance short-term economic/social impacts with long-term environmental benefits, promoting sustainable coastal development and resource use.
202
Summarize coastal management decision process.
Policies selected through economic and environmental analyses, ensuring balanced, sustainable coastal management tailored to local needs.
203
Explain how Cost-Benefit Analysis (CBA) influences coastal management decisions.
(Essay 3)
204
Define Cost-Benefit Analysis in coastal management.
Tool evaluating economic justification for coastal defence investments by balancing costs against potential benefits of erosion control.
205
Example illustrating CBA in practice (Happisburgh).
No active intervention adopted as coastal protection cost (£6m) outweighed property protection benefits (£4-7m), avoiding economic inefficiencies.
206
How CBA considers broader regional impacts.
Analyses how defences disrupt sediment transport (longshore drift), potentially increasing downdrift erosion, ensuring regional balance in SMP contexts.
207
Consideration of non-financial factors in CBA.
Includes relocation costs (£40-70,000 per resident) and heritage loss (Grade 1 St Mary's Church), ensuring comprehensive decision-making.
208
Broader economic/social long-term impacts in CBA.
Considers farmland preservation (£945,000), social/community impacts, informing strategies like managed realignment for long-term benefits.
209
CBA's role in sustainable decision-making.
Balances immediate protection costs against long-term sustainability benefits, guiding coastal managers toward cost-effective, sustainable strategies.
210
Summarize CBA’s influence.
CBA critically informs coastal policy decisions by balancing financial costs, social impacts, and long-term sustainability benefits comprehensively.
211
Explain how Environmental Impact Assessments (EIAs) influence coastal management strategies.
(Essay 4)
212
Define EIAs in coastal management.
Assessments evaluating potential environmental impacts of proposed coastal interventions to inform sustainable decision-making.
213
EIA’s role in evaluating marine ecosystem impacts.
Predicts how construction (e.g., sea defences) may alter sediment flows, affecting habitats; supports choosing managed realignment to preserve ecological integrity.
214
Example of EIA informing coastal strategy (Happisburgh).
No active intervention chosen based partly on EIA findings to avoid ecological damage from altering natural sediment transport.
215
Long-term environmental considerations in EIAs.
Assesses impacts on water quality, biodiversity, guiding policy away from intrusive strategies like advancing the line toward sustainable alternatives.
216
How EIAs ensure sustainable coastal strategies.
By prioritising ecological integrity (marine habitats, biodiversity), EIAs promote sustainable solutions like managed retreat or strategic realignment.
217
Balancing ecological impacts with human needs.
EIAs ensure environmental factors integrated into economic/social coastal decisions, achieving holistic, sustainable coastal management.
218
Summarize EIAs’ influence on coastal strategies.
EIAs critically shape coastal policies by ensuring ecological impacts fully considered, promoting sustainable coastal management decisions.
219
Explain how Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) ensures sustainable coastal management.
(Essay 5)
220
Define ICZM’s holistic approach.
Sustainable management strategy addressing economic, social, environmental needs across entire coastal zones, integrating human activity and natural processes.
221
ICZM’s relationship with littoral cells.
Divides coastlines into self-contained sediment cells, ensuring management tailored specifically to local sediment budgets and needs.
222
Adaptive management within ICZM.
ICZM allows policies to be adjusted in response to changing threats (climate change, sea-level rise), ensuring resilience and sustainability.
223
Stakeholder involvement through ICZM.
SMPs (part of ICZM) involve multiple stakeholders across council boundaries, ensuring collaborative, regionally consistent coastal management strategies.
224
Example of ICZM’s adaptive sustainability (UK).
UK’s SMPs manage each littoral cell adaptively, integrating human/environmental concerns, adjusting plans for future threats, ensuring long-term viability.
225
ICZM’s sustainability principles.
Balances long-term coastal health with economic development, ensuring environmental resources protected for future generations while supporting livelihoods.
226
Summarize ICZM’s role in sustainable management.
ICZM provides a framework ensuring sustainable coastal management through adaptive, holistic, stakeholder-inclusive strategies tailored to coastal needs.
227
Why does coastal management cause conflicts?
Conflicts arise due to differing stakeholder priorities and resource limitations (e.g., protection vs environmental concerns).
228
Example illustrating stakeholder conflict.
Blackwater Estuary, Essex: Managed realignment benefited environmental groups (salt marshes), but traditional farmers lost productive land, causing tensions.
229
Stakeholder perspective differences in developed regions.
Environmentalists prefer natural coastal management; homeowners/businesses prefer protection, creating conflicting views (e.g., managed retreat opposed by landowners).
230
Amplified conflicts in developing countries due to resource limits.
Maldives/Vietnam: Wealthier groups advocate hard engineering; poorest residents without formal land titles unable to claim compensation, exacerbating inequalities.
231
Reasons for more severe conflict in developing countries.
Rapid unregulated development, mangrove removal, lack of compensation mechanisms disproportionately impact poorer communities.
232
Result of lacking coordinated coastal management.
Individuals forced to manage their own defences, intensifying social-economic disparities and local tensions.
233
Summarize stakeholder conflicts from coastal management.
Conflicts arise from differing economic, environmental, and social priorities, magnified in developing countries due to inequality and lack of infrastructure.
234
Explain how climate change is increasing coastal flooding risks.
(Essay 2)
235
Main factors driving increased coastal flooding from climate change.
Sea-level rise and increased storm intensity due to global warming (IPCC predicts 18-59 cm sea-level rise by 2100).
236
Impact of sea-level rise on coastal flooding.
Low-lying areas (Maldives) increasingly flooded even during normal tides; vulnerability escalated significantly by rising sea levels.
237
Difficulty predicting exact sea-level rise impacts.
Depends on uncertain factors (economic development, emissions policies), complicating planning but necessitating proactive measures.
238
Example of adaptive infrastructure against rising sea-level.
North Norfolk Coast protected by sea walls to mitigate coastal flooding risks, illustrating adaptation to climate uncertainty.
239
Effect of intensified storms on coastal flooding.
Warmer oceans fuel stronger storms; IPCC forecasts tropical cyclones’ intensity rising 2-11% by 2100, heightening storm surges and coastal inundation risks.
240
Example demonstrating infrastructure adaptation to increased flooding.
Thames Barrier in London designed specifically to mitigate impacts of intensified storm events linked to climate change.
241
Summarize climate change’s effect on flooding.
Climate change intensifies coastal flooding through rising seas and more severe storm events, necessitating robust adaptive coastal management strategies.
242
Explain economic losses due to coastal erosion and flooding.
(Essay 3)
243
Direct economic impacts of coastal erosion.
Property/infrastructure losses (e.g., 2014 collapse of South Devon Railway costing £35m repairs, businesses lost £60m).
244
Specific land value illustrating erosion’s economic risk.
Dorset residential land valued at £2.1m/hectare, emphasising high economic stakes associated with coastal erosion.
245
Cost of rerouting infrastructure due to erosion.
Road rerouting costs £150,000-£250,000 per 100m, highlighting local economic burdens caused by erosion.
246
Economic impacts of coastal flooding events.
2013 North Sea flood resulted in £1bn+ damage, flooding 1,400 homes, severely affecting local economies and infrastructure.
247
Example illustrating economic losses in tourism/fishing industries.
Philippines: predicted 1m sea-level rise could cost $6.5bn property damage, significant impacts on tourism and fishing livelihoods.
248
Magnified economic impacts in developing countries.
Limited resources/infrastructure exacerbate recovery difficulties, intensifying economic vulnerabilities in developing regions post-flooding.
249
Summarize economic impacts of coastal erosion and flooding.
Erosion/flooding events cause significant economic damage (infrastructure, property, tourism, agriculture), disproportionately severe in economically vulnerable areas.
250
Explain how hard engineering strategies influence coastal processes.
(Essay 4)
251
Definition/examples of hard engineering strategies.
Physical structures (sea walls, groynes) built to manage erosion/flooding by directly altering sediment transport/wave energy.
252
Groynes’ impact on sediment transport.
Trap sediment moving via longshore drift, building local beaches but causing downdrift erosion ('terminal groyne effect'), e.g., Mappleton/Cowden (Holderness).
253
Sea walls’ function in coastal protection.
Physical barriers reflecting/dissipating wave energy, reducing erosion directly behind them (e.g., Bridlington sea wall).
254
Negative consequences of older sea wall designs.
Reflective sea walls reduce beach volume by redirecting wave energy, potentially causing erosion in adjacent coastal areas.
255
Ecological/environmental impacts of hard engineering.
Alter sediment transport, disrupt habitats, and ecological systems, creating unintended environmental challenges (terminal groyne syndrome).
256
Summary of hard engineering influence.
Offers immediate erosion protection but disrupts sediment transport/ecosystems, causing broader ecological impacts and increased erosion risks elsewhere.
257
Explain how soft engineering strategies work with natural coastal processes.
(Essay 5)
258
Definition/purpose of soft engineering strategies.
Techniques (beach nourishment, dune stabilisation) that work sustainably with natural sediment and erosion processes.
259
How beach nourishment reduces coastal erosion.
Artificial sediment replenishment enlarges beaches, dissipating wave energy naturally, reducing erosion from waves (abrasion/hydraulic action).
260
Costs/maintenance requirements of beach nourishment.
High ongoing costs (~£20m/km), regular sediment replenishment required, though environmentally sustainable compared to hard engineering.
261
Benefits of dune stabilisation in coastal management.
Fencing and vegetation planting (marram grass) stabilise dunes naturally, reducing wind/water erosion and maintaining natural defences.
262
Cost-effectiveness of dune stabilisation.
Lower long-term costs (£400-£2000 per 100m) compared to hard defences; environmentally beneficial by enhancing biodiversity.
263
Summary of soft engineering benefits.
Soft strategies manage erosion sustainably by enhancing natural resilience, are cost-effective, and environmentally friendly over the long term.
264
Explain why coastal defences may be removed as part of managed retreat strategies.
(Essay 1)
265
Why might coastal defences become unsustainable, prompting removal?
Increasing maintenance costs due to sea-level rise or frequent storms; maintenance costs outweigh benefits in low-value or sparsely populated areas.
266
Example illustrating cost inefficiency of maintaining hard engineering.
Medmerry, UK: Managed retreat implemented after sea wall maintenance became economically unsustainable.
267
Why are natural coastal processes preferred in managed retreat strategies?
Allow erosion/sediment deposition naturally, more cost-effective long-term compared to rigid defences like sea walls.
268
What are alternative, soft engineering methods supporting managed retreat?
Beach nourishment and dune stabilisation, using natural processes to reduce erosion and flood risk.
269
Ecological benefits of managed retreat over hard defences?
Restoration of ecosystems (salt marshes, dunes), increased biodiversity, natural storm buffers, and carbon sequestration potential.
270
Potential social conflicts arising from managed retreat?
Communities relying on hard defences may oppose removal despite long-term economic/ecological benefits.
271
Summarise benefits and rationale of managed retreat.
Long-term economic sustainability, ecosystem restoration, biodiversity enhancement, outweigh short-term protection offered by hard defences.
272
Explain how estuaries and deltas are affected by rising sea levels and increased storm intensity.
(Essay 2)
273
Why are estuaries/deltas highly vulnerable to sea-level rise?
Low-lying nature; permanent inundation impacts densely populated deltas like Ganges-Brahmaputra (60% below 3m elevation).
274
Effects of losing natural defences like mangroves in estuarine/delta areas?
Reduced storm surge absorption, increased flood risk and vulnerability (e.g., Bangladesh).
275
Potential impacts of rising sea levels on human populations in deltas.
7-10 million environmental refugees expected in Bangladesh from a 40cm rise; flooding causing large-scale displacement.
276
How does increased storm intensity affect estuaries/deltas?
Enhanced storm surge impacts, destructive flooding events, infrastructure/agricultural damage, and loss of human life (e.g., Tropical Cyclone Sidr, 2007).
277
Role of geographic features in amplifying storm impacts.
Funnel shape of Bay of Bengal concentrates storm surges on vulnerable coastal regions, intensifying flooding effects.
278
Consequences of combined sea-level rise and storm intensity.
Increased erosion, flooding, economic damage, community displacement, long-term vulnerability intensification.
279
Summarise impacts of rising sea levels/storm intensity.
Combined effects amplify challenges for estuaries/deltas, exacerbating erosion, flooding, human displacement, and ecosystem damage.
280
Explain why some coastal areas experience rapid isostatic rebound while others continue to subside.
(Essay 3)
281
What causes isostatic rebound in coastal areas?
Post-glacial adjustment from melting ice sheets reducing crustal compression, causing land uplift (e.g., northern Britain, Scandinavia).
282
Example illustrating rapid isostatic rebound.
Ford and Clyde valleys (Scotland) rising ~2mm/year due to previous heavy ice compression.
283
Explain isostatic subsidence in southern Britain.
Southern UK (e.g., Cornwall) less glaciated, now subsiding (~1mm/year) due to post-glacial adjustment combined with eustatic sea-level rise (global warming).
284
Example quantifying combined effects of subsidence and sea-level rise.
Land’s End: subsidence (1mm/year) plus eustatic rise (2.8mm/year), total relative sea-level rise ~3.9mm/year.
285
Role of local tectonics in differential isostatic adjustment.
Tectonically stable regions rebound faster; active tectonic zones (e.g., Alpine folding, Croatia) experience subsidence due to plate compression.
286
Why do tectonic areas experience complex isostatic changes?
Tectonic activity can cause uneven uplift/subsidence, complicating regional sea-level adjustments.
287
Summarise reasons behind differential isostatic rebound/subsidence.
Historical glaciation extent, local tectonic activity, and global eustatic changes cause variable rates of uplift/subsidence in coastal areas.
288
Explain how interaction between marine and terrestrial processes influences coastal erosion rates.
(Essay 4)
289
Key marine processes influencing coastal erosion rates.
Hydraulic action, abrasion, corrosion, and attrition; intensity varies with wave size/type.
290
Explain effectiveness of hydraulic action in coastal erosion.
Most effective in high-energy storm events; fractures cliffs (especially unconsolidated rock like boulder clay, Holderness Coast retreated 120m over century).
291
Role of abrasion in accelerating coastal erosion.
Sediment hurled by powerful waves erodes cliff faces rapidly (effective with constant sediment supply, e.g., Holderness Coast).
292
Influence of terrestrial lithology on erosion rates.
Resistant rocks (granite, marble) erode slowly; softer rocks (boulder clay, mudstones) erode rapidly (Land’s End: 0.1cm/year vs. Holderness: ~1m/year).
293
How geological structure affects erosion rates.
Differential erosion (alternating hard/soft rock layers) creates vulnerable cliff profiles prone to collapse.
294
Combined influence of marine-terrestrial processes on erosion.
Marine erosion intensified during storms/high tides; terrestrial lithology dictates erosion susceptibility (soft sediments erode fastest).
295
Summarise interaction influencing erosion rates.
Marine processes (hydraulic action, abrasion) combined with terrestrial lithology (rock type/structure) determine overall erosion rates.
296
Explain how wave refraction influences coastal erosion and sediment deposition.
(Essay 5)
297
Impact of wave refraction on coastal erosion at headlands.
Concentrates wave energy, increases erosion rates forming wave-cut notches/cliffs at headlands.
298
Role of wave refraction in sediment deposition within bays.
Refraction reduces wave energy in bays, enabling sediment deposition forming beaches/sandbars (bayhead beaches).
299
Explain formation of depositional landforms due to refraction.
Spits form when sediment transported by longshore drift accumulates as wave energy disperses due to refraction at coastline turns.
300
Example of wave refraction influencing spit formation.
Deposition beyond coastline (spits), as energy dissipates; sediment accumulation occurs (e.g., sandy spits).
301
Describe how wave refraction creates tombolos.
Wave fronts refract around islands, colliding behind them, creating calm water for sediment accumulation, linking island to mainland (tombolos).
302
Summarise wave refraction’s overall coastal influence.
Enhances erosion at headlands, facilitates sediment deposition in sheltered bays, shaping coastal features like beaches, spits, tombolos.
303
Explain how negative feedback mechanisms help maintain dynamic equilibrium in coastal systems.
(Essay 1)
304
What is dynamic equilibrium in coastal systems?
A state of balance between sediment inputs, transfers, and outputs, maintained by negative feedback mechanisms.
305
Example of negative feedback reducing erosion on cliffed coasts.
Holderness Coast: cliff erosion leads to blockfall mass movement, debris forms a natural barrier at cliff base, absorbing wave energy and reducing further erosion temporarily.
306
How do offshore bars illustrate negative feedback?
After storms (e.g., Spurn Head), dune erosion creates offshore bars, reducing wave energy and allowing dunes to recover through sediment deposition.
307
What role does negative feedback play in sediment cells?
Prevents extreme erosion or deposition, restoring equilibrium by counteracting changes within sediment cells.
308
Summarize the function of negative feedback in coastal management.
Acts naturally to moderate coastal erosion/deposition extremes, stabilizing the coastal system and sediment transport dynamics.
309
Explain how marine and sub-aerial processes interact to shape coastal landscapes.
(Essay 2)
310
How do sub-aerial processes influence marine erosion?
Weathering (hydration, freeze-thaw) weakens rock above high tide, facilitating mass movements like slumping and landslides, increasing coastal recession.
311
Example illustrating sub-aerial processes despite coastal defenses.
Overstrand, North Norfolk: coastal defences protect cliff foot, yet hydration weathering and slumping accelerate recession above protected areas.
312
How do marine processes exploit sub-aerial weathering effects?
Weakening cliffs allows faster wave-cut notch formation by destructive waves, leading to rapid cliff collapse and recession.
313
Impact of destructive waves in marine-sub-aerial interactions?
Strong backwash removes sediment from cliff bases, deepening notches, making cliffs prone to further collapse and recession.
314
Wider implications linking marine-sub-aerial processes?
Interaction connects to broader sediment transport dynamics and human intervention impacts, altering natural erosion processes.
315
Summarize marine and sub-aerial process interaction.
Sub-aerial weathering weakens cliffs; marine erosion exploits this vulnerability, accelerating coastal landscape change.
316
Explain the role of longshore drift in the formation of depositional landforms.
(Essay 3)
317
Define longshore drift (LSD).
Movement of sediment along coasts via angled wave swash and perpendicular backwash, driven by prevailing winds, resulting in zigzag transport.
318
How does LSD form spits?
Sediment transported along coast accumulates where wave energy decreases at coastline direction change, extending sediment ridges (e.g., Spurn Head spit).
319
Example of a spit formation due to LSD.
Spurn Head, UK: LSD moves sediment southward along Holderness coast; deposition at Humber Estuary forms recurved spit due to wave refraction/tidal currents.
320
Explain barrier beach and tombolo formation by LSD.
Barrier beaches form when LSD deposits sediment, creating ridges that trap lagoons (e.g., Slapton Sands). Tombolos connect islands to mainland (Chesil Beach, Dorset).
321
Key factors determining LSD effectiveness.
Prevailing wind direction, wave energy levels, and coastline orientation influence sediment transport efficiency and landform shape.
322
Summarize LSD’s role in coastal geomorphology.
Fundamental in creating depositional features like spits, tombolos, and bars by sediment transport and deposition in low-energy coastal zones.
323
Explain how lithology and structure influence coastal landform development.
(Essay 4)
324
How does lithology affect coastal recession rates?
Rock type, mineral composition, consolidation determine erosion rates: igneous rocks (granite) erode slowly (<0.1cm/yr), sedimentary rocks (sandstone) faster (~10cm/yr), unconsolidated materials (boulder clay) rapidly (>1m/yr, Holderness).
325
Impact of geological structure on coastal morphology.
Horizontal strata create steep cliffs; seaward-dipping strata form sloping cliffs vulnerable to mass movement, influencing coastal profiles.
326
Example of geological structure affecting coastal landforms.
Bantry Bay, Ireland: heavily jointed Carboniferous Limestone results in differential erosion, forming distinct bays and headlands, caves, arches, stacks.
327
Why do faults and joints increase coastal erosion?
Structural weaknesses exploited by marine erosion (hydraulic action, abrasion), accelerating formation of micro-features (caves, arches, stacks).
328
How do lithology and structure interact in shaping coasts?
Lithology determines erosion resistance; geological structure shapes cliff profiles and influences differential erosion rates.
329
Summarize lithology and structure in coastal development.
Control coastal erosion rates, cliff stability, and morphological development, influencing distinct coastal landscapes.
330
Explain how human intervention unintentionally accelerates coastal erosion.
(Essay 5)
331
How does dam construction increase coastal erosion?
Traps sediment upstream, starving downstream coasts; e.g., Aswan Dam reduced Nile sediment flow (130m tonnes to 15m tonnes annually), causing delta erosion rates from 20–25m/yr to >200m/yr.
332
Explain dredging impacts on coastal erosion.
Removes coastal sediment for navigation/construction, deepening channels, allowing higher-energy waves closer to shore, accelerating hydraulic action and abrasion erosion.
333
Example illustrating dredging-induced coastal erosion.
Guinea coastline: dredging reduced sediment supply, exposing soft rock to intense wave action, significantly increasing erosion rates.
334
How does human alteration of sediment budgets affect coasts?
Disrupts equilibrium, removing protective sediment, leaving coasts vulnerable to increased erosion rates.
335
Unintended consequences of disrupting sediment cells by human activity.
Accelerates natural erosion processes, causing rapid coastline recession, habitat loss, and economic impacts.
336
Summarize impacts of human intervention on coastal erosion.
Dam construction and dredging disrupt sediment transport, intensifying erosion beyond natural rates, unintentionally accelerating coastal recession.
337
Explain how differential erosion creates characteristic coastal landforms such as cliffs, caves, arches, and stacks.
(Essay 1)
338
What is differential erosion?
Erosion due to variations in rock resistance, creating distinct coastal features.
339
Describe how caves, arches, and stacks form due to differential erosion.
Resistant rocks (limestone) erode slower; weaknesses exploited by hydraulic action/abrasion forming caves. Continued erosion deepens caves, forming arches; collapse of arches leaves stacks; further erosion leaves stumps.
340
How does marine erosion form cliffs?
Hydraulic action/abrasion erode cliffs between high/low tide marks, creating wave-cut notches that lead to cliff instability and collapse, causing steep cliff faces.
341
Explain how wave-cut platforms form.
Repeated cliff collapse due to erosion at wave-cut notch leads to cliff retreat and formation of wave-cut platforms.
342
Influence of lithology on cliff shape.
Soft rocks (boulder clay) prone to slumping/gentle slopes; harder rocks (granite/limestone) form steep cliffs.
343
Factors controlling erosion extent in cliff formation.
Wave energy, geological structure, and sub-aerial weathering significantly shape erosion rates and cliff morphology.
344
Summarise how differential erosion shapes coastal landscapes.
Variations in rock resistance and marine erosion create characteristic landforms like caves, arches, stacks, cliffs, and wave-cut platforms.
345
Explain how short and long-term processes influence coastal landscapes.
(Essay 2)
346
Describe short-term processes influencing coastal landscapes.
Storm events causing rapid erosion and flooding, reshaping coasts quickly (e.g., Tropical Cyclone Sidr, 2007; Norfolk Storm, 2013).
347
Example of short-term rapid erosion event.
Norfolk (2013, Storm Xavier): dune erosion, house collapse, flooding; Bangladesh (Cyclone Sidr, 2007) rapid erosion from 6m storm surges.
348
Describe long-term geological influences on coastal erosion.
Rock resistance determines erosion rates: Holderness coast eroded 120m in 100 years (soft boulder clay); Land’s End granite only 10cm.
349
How do lithology and geological processes affect long-term coastal change?
Hard rocks resist erosion, softer rocks rapidly eroded; differential lithology shapes coastal recession over decades.
350
Interaction of climatic and geological processes in long-term landscape evolution.
Climate-driven sea-level rise and geological structure (e.g., rock resistance) shape sustained landscape evolution over centuries.
351
Summarise short vs. long-term coastal landscape changes.
Short-term storms cause rapid, episodic erosion; long-term geological processes shape sustained coastal evolution, influencing recession and landform creation.
352
Explain how climatic factors influence rates of coastal erosion.
(Essay 3)
353
Main climatic factors increasing coastal erosion rates.
Rising global temperatures causing sea-level rise, increased storm intensity, higher wind speeds and wave energy.
354
Impact of climate-induced storm intensity on erosion.
More intense storms and higher wind speeds increase wave energy, accelerating erosion (hydraulic action/abrasion) on soft coastlines (Holderness).
355
Example illustrating increased storm-driven erosion rates.
Increased frequency of hurricanes in North Atlantic enhances erosion via stronger waves and storm surges, notably affecting Holderness coast.
356
Influence of projected sea-level rise on erosion.
IPCC predicts 18–59cm rise by 2100, increasing erosion rates on low-lying coasts (e.g., Ganges Delta).
357
Consequences of higher storm surges on erosion processes.
Enhanced wave attack at cliff bases promotes mass movement (rotational slumping), accelerating coastal recession.
358
Role of human strategies responding to increased erosion risks.
Hard engineering (Thames Barrier) implemented in response to rising storm intensity and sea-level rise threats.
359
Summarize climatic impacts on erosion rates.
Rising global temperatures increase sea-level rise, storm intensity, wave energy, accelerating coastal erosion, especially on unconsolidated shorelines.
360
Explain how climate change may increase environmental refugees due to coastal impacts.
(Essay 4)
361
Define environmental refugees.
People forced to migrate due to environmental impacts, such as climate-induced sea-level rise or extreme weather events.
362
How does sea-level rise cause environmental displacement?
IPCC predicts up to 82cm rise by 2100; threatens low-lying islands (Tuvalu, Maldives), lacking adaptive capacity for defences.
363
Example of low-lying island vulnerability to displacement.
Tuvalu (1–2m elevation), Maldives (average 1.5m) at risk of permanent inundation, lacking resources for coastal defences.
364
Governmental responses to potential displacement.
Maldives relocating populations to India/Australia; Tuvalu has agreements with New Zealand; demonstrates global displacement and limited adaptive capacity.
365
Impact of extreme weather events (storms) on displacement.
Hurricanes/storm surges displace millions; Hurricane Katrina (2005) displaced thousands permanently; poorer countries struggle more.
366
Example illustrating extreme weather displacement.
Hurricane Katrina (2005): 7m storm surge displaced thousands, illustrating permanent migration due to lack of resilience and adaptive capacity.
367
Link between displacement and global development gap.
Poorer nations more vulnerable due to limited resources for adaptation, exacerbating global inequalities in resilience to climate change.
368
Summarise climate change’s role in creating refugees.
Sea-level rise and intensified storms drive gradual and sudden displacement, increasing environmental refugees globally, disproportionately affecting poorer nations.
369
Explain how wave-cut notches and cuspate forelands are formed.
(Essay 5)
370
Formation of wave-cut notches.
Hydraulic action and abrasion erode cliffs at high/low tide marks, creating notches that eventually collapse, causing cliff recession.
371
Processes involved in notch formation.
Hydraulic action, abrasion (sediment impact), corrosion (solution of limestone/chalk), weakening cliff stability.
372
Outcome of wave-cut notch formation over time.
Notch deepening causes cliff collapse (mass movement), retreating coastline inland, forming wave-cut platforms.
373
Characteristics of wave-cut platforms.
Shallow-sloping rock platforms exposed at low tide; limited extent due to reduced wave energy in shallow water.
374
Define cuspate forelands.
Low-lying triangular landforms formed by sediment deposition from converging longshore drift currents.
375
Example of cuspate foreland formation.
Dungeness formed by two spits joining, enclosing a lagoon infilled by salt marsh succession and sediment deposition.
376
Explain sediment deposition’s role in cuspate forelands.
Sediment deposited from opposing longshore drift currents creates triangular features extending into sea, shaped further by salt marsh formation and wind-blown sand.
377
Summarise how wave-cut notches and cuspate forelands develop.
Marine erosion creates wave-cut notches causing cliff retreat; sediment deposition from LSD forms cuspate forelands, demonstrating erosion/deposition balance in shaping coastal landforms.
378
Explain how revetments help to reduce coastal erosion.
(Essay)
379
How do revetments function to reduce coastal erosion?
Act as physical barriers absorbing and dissipating wave energy before waves reach cliffs or dunes.
380
What materials are revetments typically constructed from?
Wood, concrete, or rock.
381
How does the placement of revetments help mitigate erosion?
Placed at an angle, revetments deflect wave energy, reducing hydraulic action and abrasion at cliff bases, limiting erosion and mass movement.
382
Explain how revetments affect wave energy.
Slow waves down, decreasing erosive power and preventing undercutting, thus stabilising the coastline.
383
Why do revetments allow some water and sediment through gaps?
Maintains natural sediment transport, reducing wave reflection and preventing long-term scouring elsewhere.
384
Discuss maintenance requirements for revetments.
Require regular maintenance, as wave impacts and weathering can weaken their structure over time.
385
Advantages of revetments compared to sea walls?
Less visually intrusive, can support vegetation growth, providing a more natural coastal defence.
386
Summarise overall benefits and limitations of revetments.
Effective at absorbing wave energy and reducing erosion; however, ongoing maintenance is necessary due to wave impacts and weathering.
