content eq4 Flashcards
1
Q
- What are the main types of economic losses from coastal recession?
A
Loss or damage to property (homes, businesses, farmland) and infrastructure (roads, railways, utilities).
2
Q
- How are economic losses from coastal recession typically quantified?
A
Through property values, cost of infrastructure repairs, and the economic impact on local businesses.
3
Q
- What was the EA’s valuation of English agricultural land in 2015?
A
Approximately £21,000 per hectare.
4
Q
- How much was industrial/business land valued at in 2015 in England?
A
Around £500,000 per hectare.
5
Q
- What is the range of residential land values per hectare mentioned?
A
Between £500,000 in colder areas (e.g., North Yorkshire, boulder clay) and £2.1 million in warmer, scenic areas (e.g., Dorset, Jurassic coast).
6
Q
- How much can re-routing a two-lane road cost per 100 meters?
A
Between £150,000 and £250,000 per 100 meters.
7
Q
- What was the repair cost for the collapsed section of the South Devon Main Line Railway in 2014?
A
Approximately £35 million.
8
Q
- What were the estimated business losses in the South West due to the South Devon Railway collapse?
A
About £60 million.
9
Q
- How can unexpected coastal recession affect property owners?
A
It can lead to the loss of major assets, a decrease in property values, and difficulties in selling or insuring property.
10
Q
- What happened to the Holbeck Hall Hotel in Scarborough in 1993?
A
140 mm of rain in two months triggered a slump of 1 million tonnes of boulder clay, leading to the collapse of a £2 million hotel.
11
Q
- How does coastal recession lead to localized economic losses?
A
Through sudden asset loss, costly repairs, and potential relocation expenses for affected communities.
12
Q
- Why are economic losses from coastal recession often considered small overall?
A
Erosion happens slowly, affecting few properties over decades; high-risk areas tend to lose value before being directly impacted, and dense settlements are usually protected by coastal defences.
13
Q
- What are the main social losses associated with coastal recession?
A
Relocation of communities, loss of livelihoods, community breakup, and degradation of amenity value.
14
Q
- How does relocation impact communities socially?
A
It disrupts community cohesion, severs local ties, and can lead to stress and loss of familiar social networks.
15
Q
- What social impact does the loss of livelihood have?
A
Loss of income and employment, increased financial stress, and potential long-term economic hardship.
16
Q
- What is meant by “amenity value” in this context?
A
The cultural, well-being, and economic value derived from attractive and accessible coastal environments.
17
Q
- How might coastal recession make an area less attractive?
A
Through visible damage such as cliff collapse, eroded sea defences, and blocked or rerouted roads and footpaths.
18
Q
- What indirect economic consequence might occur if areas become unattractive?
A
A decline in tourism and local business activity, leading to falling property values and depopulation.
19
Q
- How do coastal defences affect the scale of economic losses?
A
They tend to protect high-density areas, so actual losses may be lower in well-defended zones despite high property values.
20
Q
- What national scheme exists in the UK to assist those who lose their homes to coastal recession?
A
The ‘Coastal Change Pathfinder’ projects funded by DEFRA, which offer limited relocation and demolition grants.
21
Q
- What support did the Coastal Change Pathfinder projects provide?
A
Funding for property demolition and site restoration, relocation expenses up to £1,000, and hardship grants up to £200, plus fast-tracked planning for new construction.
22
Q
- How many properties does the Environment Agency estimate could be lost by 2035?
A
Approximately 800 properties.
23
Q
- How does the slow pace of erosion affect economic losses?
A
It means that losses accumulate gradually over decades, allowing for some adaptation, though sudden events can still cause severe localized damage.
24
Q
- Why do property values typically decline before actual coastal recession occurs?
A
Buyers are aware of the long-term risks, leading to reduced market value even before a property is physically impacted.
25
25. What kind of infrastructure is most at risk from coastal recession?
Roads, railways, ports, and utilities that support coastal communities and economic activities.
26
26. How might coastal recession affect agricultural land?
It reduces the usable area of fertile deltas and coastal plains, leading to direct losses in agricultural production.
27
27. Why are low-lying coastal areas particularly vulnerable to economic loss?
They are prone to flooding and erosion, and are often densely populated with high-value property and infrastructure.
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28. What social challenges arise from the forced relocation of coastal communities?
Loss of community identity, disruption of local economies, and significant psychological and social stress.
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29. How can coastal recession lead to a loss of amenity value?
Through visual degradation of the coastline, loss of recreational spaces, and diminished natural beauty that attracts tourism.
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30. What is a potential long-term social impact of coastal recession on local businesses?
Businesses may close or relocate if the area becomes unattractive, leading to economic decline and further social disruption.
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31. How can economic losses from coastal recession indirectly affect national economies?
By reducing tourism revenues, increasing government spending on repairs and relocation, and straining insurance and compensation systems.
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32. Why is there little national compensation for those who lose their homes to the sea?
Because coastal recession is often seen as a certainty rather than a risk, limiting available relief and compensation schemes.
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33. What role does government policy play in mitigating economic and social losses?
Through funding coastal defences, managing land use, and implementing targeted support programs for affected communities.
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34. How does coastal recession contribute to broader social inequalities?
Lower-income communities and those in informal settlements (like slums) are more vulnerable due to inadequate defences and limited relocation support.
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35. In summary, what are the key economic and social losses from coastal recession?
Economic losses include damage to property, infrastructure, and agricultural land, while social losses involve community displacement, loss of livelihoods, and reduced amenity value—all of which can have significant local impacts despite sometimes lower overall national figures.
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1. What are the two primary types of events that cause coastal flooding?
Coastal flooding results from both storm surges and longer-duration flooding events.
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2. How do storm surges differ from general coastal flooding?
Storm surges are temporary rises in sea level caused by very low air pressure and strong onshore winds, leading to short-term flooding, while coastal flooding may cover larger areas and last longer.
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3. Why are coastal flood events considered natural disasters in some cases?
Because they cover extensive areas, cause significant property damage, disrupt infrastructure, and lead to loss of life and livelihoods.
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4. What types of losses are associated with coastal flooding?
Economic losses (damage to homes, businesses, farmland, infrastructure) and social losses (community displacement, loss of livelihood, diminished amenity value).
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5. How does coastal flooding affect property values?
Properties at risk of flooding lose value even before physical damage occurs, and eventual inundation leads to substantial losses.
41
6. How is economic loss quantified in coastal recession?
Losses are quantified by property values per hectare, repair or rerouting costs for infrastructure, and estimated business and agricultural revenue losses.
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7. How much was English agricultural land valued per hectare in 2015?
Approximately £21,000 per hectare.
43
8. What was the 2015 valuation for industrial/business land in England?
About £500,000 per hectare.
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9. What range of residential land values is mentioned?
Residential land values range from £500,000 per hectare in cooler regions to £2.1 million per hectare in warmer, scenic areas.
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10. How costly can road re-routing be due to coastal recession?
Re-routing a two-lane road can cost between £150,000 and £250,000 per 100 meters.
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11. What was the repair cost for the South Devon Main Line Railway collapse in 2014?
It cost around £35 million to repair.
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12. What additional business losses were reported in the South West due to coastal recession?
Businesses in the South West lost approximately £60 million.
48
13. How can unexpected coastal recession events impact individual properties?
They can lead to the sudden collapse of major assets, force relocation, and create challenges in insuring and reselling property.
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14. What example illustrates a sudden, localized loss from coastal recession?
The 1993 collapse of the Holbeck Hall Hotel in Scarborough after 140 mm of rain caused a slump of 1 million tonnes of boulder clay.
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15. What are some direct economic consequences of coastal flooding?
Damage to housing, commercial properties, infrastructure like roads and railways, and loss of agricultural land.
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16. How can coastal flooding affect local businesses?
Flooding can render areas unattractive, lead to business closures, reduced tourism, and long-term economic decline.
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17. What social impacts arise from coastal flooding and storm surges?
Forced relocation, loss of community cohesion, disruption of livelihoods, and stress from displacement and loss of amenities.
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18. How does relocation due to coastal flooding affect communities?
It breaks up communities, disrupts social networks, and often causes long-term psychological and economic hardships.
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19. What is the “amenity value” loss associated with coastal flooding?
It refers to the loss of cultural, recreational, and aesthetic values that attract tourism and support local quality of life.
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20. How does coastal flooding impact infrastructure?
Flooding can damage roads, railways, ports, airports, water and sewage systems, and power grids, leading to widespread service disruptions.
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21. What role do natural defenses (e.g., mangroves) play in mitigating flood risk?
Natural defenses absorb wave energy, reduce surge heights, and help stabilize sediment, thereby reducing flood impact.
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22. How have coastal defences been used in the UK to mitigate flooding?
Improved flood defences, such as sea walls and storm surge barriers (e.g., Thames Barrier), have reduced loss of life and property damage.
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23. What were the key features and consequences of the North Sea Flood in the UK, 2013?
Storm surges reached over 5 m; 1,400 homes flooded, approximately £1 billion in damage was reported, 2 deaths occurred, and thousands were evacuated.
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24. What additional disruptions were caused by the 2013 North Sea Flood?
All rail services in Scotland were cancelled, 40,000 homes lost power, and coastal defences were breached in Yorkshire and Kent.
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25. How did coastal flooding in the UK affect local amenities?
Natural reserves were damaged (e.g., a nature reserve in Skegness), and commercial areas like harbours and town centres were inundated.
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26. How does the severity of coastal flood events differ between developed and developing countries?
While both suffer severe consequences, developing countries often experience higher human losses, lower property values, and fewer resources for adaptation.
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27. What sea level rise does the IPCC predict for Australia by 2100?
The IPCC predicts a sea level rise of 28–98 cm, with a most likely rise of 55 cm for Australia.
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28. What would a 1 m sea level rise mean for Australia economically?
It would flood 116,000 homes, threaten US $87 billion of commercial property, and impact infrastructure worth billions (roads, rail, power stations, etc.).
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29. How could coral reef loss affect the Australian economy?
The loss of coral reefs (e.g., the Great Barrier Reef) would decrease tourism income and affect coastal protection.
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30. What are the predicted economic consequences of a 1 m sea level rise in the Philippines?
It could cause approximately US $6.5 billion in property damage, loss of tourism revenue (e.g., San Fernando losing 123,000 m² of beach), and significant losses in the fishing industry.
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31. How many people could be affected by a 1 m sea level rise in the Philippines?
Approximately 2.3 million people, with 62% of Manila at risk.
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32. What was Typhoon Haiyan (2013) and its impacts in the Philippines?
Typhoon Haiyan was one of the most powerful tropical cyclones, with a 4–5 m storm surge; it caused US $2 billion in damage, destroyed 90% of structures in Tacloban, and resulted in at least 6,300 deaths, 30,000 injuries, and 1.9 million homeless.
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33. How did Typhoon Haiyan affect displacement in the Philippines?
It displaced 6 million people, with many fleeing to major urban centres like Manila.
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34. What were the economic damages from the 1953 North Sea Flood in the Netherlands?
The flood destroyed 10,000 buildings, damaged 40,000, flooded nearly 10% of Dutch farmland, and caused around 1,800 deaths.
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35. What social consequences did the 1953 North Sea Flood have in the Netherlands?
The event caused massive displacement and loss of life, fundamentally altering the affected communities.
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36. How did the UK winter storms of 2013–14 impact the country economically?
The storms resulted in approximately £1 billion in damage, with 17 deaths and widespread flooding affecting infrastructure and homes.
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37. How did Hurricane Sandy (2012) affect the USA economically?
Hurricane Sandy caused US $70 billion in damage, affected 350,000 homes in New Jersey, and left 6 million people without power.
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38. What social impacts did Hurricane Sandy have in the USA?
It led to extensive displacement, loss of homes, and long-term disruption of communities and businesses.
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39. What is a common long-term economic consequence of repeated coastal flood events?
Repeated events can lead to chronic depreciation of property values, higher insurance premiums, and increased public spending on rebuilding and protection.
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40. How can coastal flooding lead to the break-up of communities?
Displacement from repeated or severe events forces relocation, breaks social ties, and disrupts local economies and cultural networks.
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41. How do coastal flood events influence the planning of coastal infrastructure?
They prompt the need for improved flood defences, better land-use planning, and investment in resilient infrastructure to mitigate future losses.
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42. Summarise the overall consequences of coastal flooding and storm surges.
Coastal flooding and storm surges cause extensive economic losses (through property, infrastructure, and agricultural damage) and severe social impacts (community displacement, loss of livelihoods, and reduced amenity value), with effects varying between developed and developing countries.
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1. What are environmental refugees?
People forced to leave their homes due to natural processes such as erosion, rising sea levels, landslides, or other gradual or sudden environmental changes. (Note: This term is not used by the UNHCR.)
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2. What types of displacement does the term include?
It includes both refugees and internally displaced people affected by environmental factors.
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3. What sea level rise does the IPCC predict by 2100 that may contribute to environmental displacement?
The IPCC predicts a sea level rise of between 26–82 cm by 2100.
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4. How does rising sea level create environmental refugees?
Rising sea levels lead to flooding, saltwater encroachment into freshwater sources, and coral bleaching that weakens natural sea defences, forcing communities to relocate.
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5. Which environmental processes contribute to displacement aside from sea level rise?
Flooding from storm surges, saltwater intrusion into groundwater, and the degradation of natural coastal defences (e.g., coral bleaching).
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6. Which regions are most at risk from sea level rise as per the document?
The Maldives, Tuvalu, the Seychelles, and Barbados are considered highly vulnerable.
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7. What is significant about Tuvalu's topography in relation to environmental refugee risks?
Tuvalu's highest point is only 4.5 m above sea level, and most of its land is only 1–2 m above sea level, making it extremely vulnerable.
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8. How has New Zealand responded to climate-induced displacement from Tuvalu?
New Zealand grants residency to approximately 75 Tuvalu citizens each year under the Pacific Access Category Ballot and, in 2014, granted permanent residence to the Alesana family as 'climate change refugees'.
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9. How does coastal population density affect environmental refugee risk?
High population densities, especially in low-lying deltas and estuaries, mean that many people live in areas vulnerable to flooding, increasing the risk of displacement.
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10. Why are the Seychelles particularly vulnerable to environmental displacement?
About 80% of the Seychelles’ population lives and works along the coast, where rising sea levels and saltwater intrusion threaten livelihoods and habitability.
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11. How do coral reefs play a role in coastal defence?
Coral reefs naturally protect coastlines by dissipating wave energy; however, global warming-induced coral bleaching degrades these defences, increasing flood risk.
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12. What challenges do limited water supplies pose to coastal communities?
Saltwater encroachment and overuse of groundwater compromise drinking water, irrigation, and industrial uses, exacerbating displacement risks.
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13. How do small and narrow economies contribute to the vulnerability of coastal areas?
Economies based on tourism and fishing are easily disrupted by environmental changes, leading to economic decline and forcing relocation.
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14. Why is land availability a critical issue for environmental refugees in island nations?
High population densities and limited land mean there is little room for relocation; for instance, the Maldives has an average elevation of only 1.5 m above sea level.
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15. What measures has the Maldivian government considered to address environmental refugee risks?
The Maldives is negotiating with India, Sri Lanka, and Australia to purchase land for potential relocation, as its current population of 400,000 cannot be easily accommodated.
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16. What is the worst-case scenario for islands like Tuvalu and parts of the Maldives?
The worst-case scenario is that some or all of the islands will have to be abandoned, creating large numbers of environmental refugees.
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17. How did Hurricane Katrina (2005) illustrate the concept of environmental refugees?
Hurricane Katrina produced a 7 m storm surge that flooded New Orleans, creating around 1 million environmental refugees, with 30% of displaced people not returning.
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18. What were the impacts of Typhoon Haiyan (2013) in terms of displacement?
Typhoon Haiyan and similar events since 2008 produced approximately 6.8 million internally displaced environmental refugees.
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19. How does climate change amplify the risk of environmental displacement?
By increasing the intensity and frequency of extreme weather events and accelerating sea level rise, climate change heightens flood risk and coastal erosion, forcing more communities to relocate.
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20. In what ways might environmental refugee issues affect international relations?
They may lead to migration pressures, require international aid, prompt bilateral negotiations for relocation, and necessitate changes in immigration policies.
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21. How do social and economic factors compound the challenges of environmental displacement?
Loss of livelihood, disruption of community ties, and inadequate infrastructure for relocation exacerbate the human and economic costs of displacement.
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22. Why is the term "environmental refugee" controversial?
Because it is not officially recognized by the UNHCR, and the categorization can blur distinctions between forced migration due to natural events and political asylum needs.
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23. How does coastal erosion contribute to the creation of environmental refugees?
Gradual erosion of coastal land reduces habitable and arable areas, leading to displacement as communities lose their homes and agricultural land.
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24. What role do storm surges play in generating environmental refugees?
Storm surges can cause sudden, catastrophic flooding that destroys homes and infrastructure, leading to immediate large-scale displacement.
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25. How might future sea level rise exacerbate the issue of environmental refugees?
With predicted sea level rises of 26–82 cm by 2100, more coastal regions will be flooded or rendered uninhabitable, increasing the number of environmental refugees globally.
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1. What is hard engineering in coastal management?
Hard engineering is a traditional management approach that uses structures (e.g., groynes, sea walls, rip rap, revetments, offshore breakwaters) to directly stop or alter physical processes like erosion and mass movement.
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2. What materials are typically used in hard engineering solutions?
Materials include concrete, stone, steel, and timber—often forming rigid, permanent structures that encase the coastline.
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3. What is the primary aim of hard engineering solutions?
The aim is to protect the coast by preventing erosion, altering wave action, and encouraging deposition to build wider or higher beaches.
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4. What are groynes and what do they do?
Groynes are vertical structures built perpendicular to the coast; they interrupt longshore drift and encourage sediment deposition to build up the beach.
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5. What is a sea wall and what is its primary function?
A sea wall is a vertical barrier, usually made of concrete with steel reinforcement, built along the coast to absorb and dissipate wave energy, thereby protecting inland areas.
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6. What is rip rap (rock armour)?
Rip rap consists of large, heavy boulders placed along the coast or at the base of sea walls to protect against erosion and undercutting by dissipating wave energy.
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7. What are revetments and how do they function?
Revetments are sloping structures made of stone, timber, or interlocking concrete that are designed to absorb and dissipate wave energy, reducing erosion on dune faces and mud banks.
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8. What are offshore rock breakwaters?
Offshore rock breakwaters are structures built in the sea, parallel to the coast, to break up incoming waves and reduce their energy before they reach the shoreline.
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9. How do modern sea walls differ from older designs?
Modern sea walls are engineered to dissipate wave energy rather than reflect it, reducing the force of waves that can undercut and damage the structure.
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10. What are the main advantages of hard engineering solutions?
They provide a visible and reassuring protection, can serve as a 'one-off' solution lasting decades, and directly stop or modify damaging coastal processes.
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11. What are the primary disadvantages of hard engineering?
They are very costly (both initial and maintenance costs), can fail despite careful design, often look unattractive, and may have adverse effects further along the coast.
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12. How do hard engineering structures affect sediment dynamics?
They can prevent longshore drift, leading to sediment starvation and increased erosion downdrift, while sometimes encouraging local deposition that builds beaches.
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13. What impact can hard engineering have on coastal ecosystems?
They often destroy natural coastal features such as the natural cliff face and foreshore environments, reducing habitat diversity and aesthetic value.
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14. Why are hard engineering solutions considered economically costly?
The high expense of materials, construction, and ongoing maintenance, as well as potential economic losses from adverse downstream impacts, make them expensive.
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15. How might coastal defences built in one location affect other parts of the coast?
They can alter sediment transport patterns, leading to increased erosion and recession in areas further down the coast.
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16. What is the purpose of the stepped or 'bullnose' profile in sea walls?
These designs help to dissipate wave energy gradually, reducing the potential for undercutting and scour at the base of the wall.
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17. How does rip rap protect sea walls?
Rip rap acts as a buffer, absorbing wave energy and protecting sea walls from undercutting and scour caused by direct wave impact.
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18. What role do revetments play in protecting coastal areas?
Revetments absorb and dissipate wave energy, reducing erosion and protecting the underlying sediment from being washed away.
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19. How do offshore breakwaters help in coastal protection?
They reduce the energy of incoming waves before they reach the coast, thereby lessening the impact of waves and reducing coastal erosion.
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20. What are some examples of structures used in hard engineering?
Examples include groynes, sea walls, rip rap, revetments, and offshore rock breakwaters.
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21. Why might hard engineering be described as a "one-off" solution?
Once built, these structures can protect a coastline for several decades, though they require maintenance and may eventually need to be replaced.
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22. What is the typical cost range for constructing a sea wall?
Sea wall construction costs can range widely, with some estimates indicating costs from £3,000 to £10,000 per metre, depending on design and location.
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23. How is the cost of groynes typically expressed?
Groynes may cost approximately £150–£250 per metre, though costs can vary based on materials and site-specific conditions.
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24. What is a key environmental criticism of hard engineering?
They often neglect the needs of coastal ecosystems and can lead to visually unattractive landscapes that impact the natural and recreational value of the coast.
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25. How do hard engineering measures sometimes lead to a "coastal squeeze"?
By preventing natural sediment deposition and limiting the space available for beach migration, hard engineering can trap coastal habitats between fixed defences and rising sea levels.
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26. What is one consequence of reduced longshore drift due to hard engineering?
It can lead to sediment starvation in downdrift areas, increasing the rate of erosion and coastal recession in those locations.
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27. How do hard engineering solutions interact with natural processes?
They deliberately alter or stop natural coastal processes like erosion and sediment transport, often leading to unforeseen changes elsewhere along the coast.
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28. Why are hard engineering solutions sometimes preferred despite their disadvantages?
They provide immediate and tangible protection to high-value areas, offering reassurance and short-term security against severe coastal erosion and flooding.
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29. What is the main goal of using hard engineering in coastal management?
The goal is to protect infrastructure, properties, and lives by directly intervening in the natural processes that cause coastal erosion and flooding.
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30. How does the maintenance cost of hard engineering solutions affect their long-term viability?
Ongoing maintenance costs can be high and add to the overall expense, sometimes making these solutions economically unsustainable over the long term.
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1. What is soft engineering in coastal management?
Soft engineering involves working with natural processes (e.g., beach nourishment, cliff regrading, dune stabilisation) to manage coastal erosion and flood risk rather than blocking or stopping natural forces.
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2. How does soft engineering differ from hard engineering?
It is less intrusive, often cheaper in the long term, and attempts to work with natural systems, unlike hard engineering which uses rigid structures such as sea walls and groynes.
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3. What is the main purpose of beach nourishment?
To artificially replenish beach sediment lost through erosion, enlarge the beach, dissipate wave energy, reduce erosion, and enhance the amenity value of the coast.
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4. What is one financial consideration for beach nourishment?
It can cost around £20 million per km of beach, and ongoing costs are high due to the need for regular replenishment.
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5. What is an important requirement when sourcing sediment for beach nourishment?
The sediment must come from within the same sediment cell to maintain the natural balance of sediment transport.
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6. What does cliff regrading and drainage involve?
It involves reducing the cliff slope angles to increase stability, re-vegetating to reduce surface erosion, and installing in-cliff drainage to reduce pore-water pressure and the risk of mass movement.
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7. What are the cost implications of cliff regrading and drainage?
Costs are significant, averaging about £1 million per 100 m, and the construction process can be disruptive.
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8. What is the purpose of dune stabilisation?
To reduce wind speeds across dunes, replant vegetation such as marram and lyme grass to stabilise the surface, and thereby reduce erosion from wind and water.
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9. How is dune stabilisation typically implemented?
Through the use of fences to reduce wind speeds and replanting of native dune vegetation that helps to bind the sand and promote natural dune growth.
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10. What are the cost estimates for dune stabilisation?
Fencing may cost between £400 and £2000 per 100 m, and replanting can cost around £1000 per 100 m, making the total roughly between £1400 and £3000 per 100 m.
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11. Why is soft engineering considered less visually intrusive?
Because it works with natural processes and often involves enhancements that blend with the natural environment, preserving the coastal landscape’s aesthetic appeal.
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12. What is one advantage of soft engineering approaches over hard engineering?
They can be more cost-effective in the long term, especially when maintenance and environmental impacts are taken into account.
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13. Why might soft engineering not be suitable for all coasts?
Some coastal environments may experience erosion so rapid or severe that soft engineering measures are insufficient to protect them.
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14. How does re-vegetation help in soft engineering solutions?
Vegetation stabilises sediments, reduces surface erosion, and can enhance natural sediment accretion processes, thus contributing to coastal defence.
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15. What environmental benefit is associated with soft engineering?
It maintains and enhances natural coastal habitats and ecosystems, unlike hard engineering, which can degrade these environments.
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16. How do soft engineering methods contribute to adaptive coastal management?
They offer flexible, nature-based solutions that can be adjusted over time as coastal processes change, and often have lower long-term environmental and social impacts.
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1. What is sustainable coastal management?
It is an approach to managing the coastal zone that balances environmental protection, long-term resource productivity, social well-being, and safety from coastal hazards while adapting to future threats such as rising sea levels and increased storms.
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2. What future threats do coastal communities face?
They face rising global sea levels, increased frequency of storms, and the potential for more severe erosion and flooding.
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3. How does sustainable coastal management differ from traditional coastal management?
Sustainable management addresses long-term well-being, resource sustainability, and community adaptation rather than focusing solely on immediate physical protection through hard engineering.
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4. What natural resources are managed under sustainable coastal management?
Resources such as fisheries, agricultural land, and water supplies are managed to ensure their long-term productivity.
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5. What strategies are used to manage flood and erosion risks sustainably?
Strategies include risk reduction measures, adaptive engineering where feasible, and planned relocation to safer areas when necessary.
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6. How does sustainable coastal management address livelihood challenges?
It promotes the creation of alternative livelihoods before traditional ones are lost to erosion, flooding, or sea level rise.
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7. What adaptive measures are considered for dealing with sea level rise?
Measures include alternative building methods, new water supply strategies, and, where necessary, relocation of communities.
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8. Why is education important in sustainable coastal management?
Educating communities helps them understand why changes are necessary, how to adapt, and fosters support for sustainable practices.
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9. How is monitoring integrated into sustainable coastal management?
Ongoing monitoring of coastal change allows for the detection of unexpected trends and enables adaptive management strategies to be updated as needed.
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10. What are some examples of sustainable management actions?
Examples include regulating coastal resource use, building adaptive coastal defences, implementing relocation schemes, and establishing alternative economic activities.
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11. How does sustainable coastal management aim to protect social and cultural well-being?
By ensuring that coastal communities maintain safe living conditions, preserving local heritage, and supporting social cohesion during transitions.
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12. What role does planning play in sustainable coastal management?
Long-term planning is essential for adapting to gradual changes (like sea level rise) and sudden events (like storms), while considering environmental, economic, and social factors.
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13. How can sustainable coastal management reduce environmental impacts?
By working with natural processes—rather than overriding them with hard engineering—sustainable management minimizes habitat destruction and preserves ecosystem services.
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14. Why might sustainable coastal management lead to conflict?
Because it may require reduced use of natural resources, forced relocation, or changes in local land use that some stakeholders oppose due to potential loss of income or lifestyle disruption.
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15. How can managing natural resources sustainably benefit coastal communities?
It ensures that resources such as fish, farmland, and water remain productive for future generations, supporting long-term economic stability.
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16. What is the importance of alternative livelihoods in sustainable coastal management?
They provide income and job opportunities when traditional coastal industries, such as fishing or tourism, are threatened by erosion or flooding.
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17. How does relocation fit into sustainable coastal management strategies?
When coastal defences are too costly or technically unfeasible, planned relocation helps protect communities and reduce risk from coastal hazards.
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18. What is meant by "adaptive management" in the context of coastal management?
It refers to the continuous process of monitoring, evaluating, and adjusting management strategies in response to changing environmental conditions and uncertainties.
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19. How can sustainable coastal management help reduce flood risk?
By integrating natural solutions, such as restoring wetlands and mangroves, with adaptive infrastructure to absorb wave energy and buffer storm surges.
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20. What are the long-term benefits of employing sustainable coastal management?
Benefits include enhanced resilience to climate change, sustained natural resource productivity, and improved quality of life for coastal communities.
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21. How does sustainable coastal management contribute to safety from coastal hazards?
It combines proactive planning, risk reduction strategies, and community education to minimize damage and loss during coastal flooding and erosion events.
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22. How can economic development be balanced with environmental protection in coastal zones?
Through integrated management that considers both the short-term economic benefits and the long-term sustainability of natural and social resources.
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23. Why is political commitment important in sustainable coastal management?
Strong political will is needed to implement adaptive policies, secure funding for long-term projects, and ensure that community interests are balanced with environmental goals.
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24. What challenges does uncertainty in future sea level rise pose for coastal management?
Uncertainty complicates planning, as coastal managers must design flexible strategies that can adapt to a range of possible future scenarios.
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25. Summarise the key objectives of sustainable coastal management.
Its key objectives are to protect and enhance the coastal environment, ensure long-term resource productivity, reduce flood and erosion risks, support community resilience, and balance economic development with environmental sustainability.
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1. What does ICZM stand for?
Integrated Coastal Zone Management.
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2. What is the main aim of ICZM?
To manage the entire coastal zone sustainably, balancing economic development, environmental protection, and social well-being.
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3. When did ICZM originate?
It dates from the Rio Earth Summit in 1992.
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4. What is a key feature of ICZM?
It is a holistic, long-term planning approach that involves all stakeholders and works with natural processes.
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5. What does “adaptive management” mean in ICZM?
It refers to the continual adjustment of management plans as threats and environmental conditions change.
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6. How does ICZM differ from traditional coastal management?
Unlike traditional approaches focused only on the narrow zone of wave action, ICZM manages the entire coastal zone, including ecosystems, resources, and human activities.
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7. Why is the entire coastal zone managed under ICZM?
Because the coastal zone supports livelihoods, cultural values, and biodiversity, and human activities there often degrade the environment.
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8. What role do natural processes play in ICZM?
ICZM works with natural processes such as sediment transport and coastal dynamics, rather than trying to completely stop them.
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9. What are littoral cells?
Littoral cells (or sediment cells) are discrete, isolated sections of coastline that contain sediment sources, transport paths, and sinks.
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10. Why are littoral cells important in coastal management?
They allow the coastline to be managed as independent, holistic units, making planning and adaptive management more effective.
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11. How many primary sediment cells are there in England and Wales?
There are 11 primary sediment cells.
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12. What is a Shoreline Management Plan (SMP)?
An SMP is a comprehensive management plan used to coordinate the sustainable management of a littoral cell or sub-cell.
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13. How are SMP areas typically structured?
SMP areas are divided into sub-cells that extend across local council boundaries, requiring cooperation among councils.
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14. How does ICZM promote sustainability?
By ensuring economic development is environmentally appropriate and equitable, while safeguarding coastal resources for future generations.
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15. What is one challenge in implementing ICZM?
Coordinating across multiple stakeholders and local authorities can lead to conflicts over resource use and management priorities.
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16. How does ICZM address human activities in the coastal zone?
It integrates the management of fisheries, agriculture, tourism, and urban development to prevent degradation of the coastal environment.
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17. What is the significance of managing natural resources in ICZM?
Sustainable management of resources like fish, farmland, and water ensures long-term productivity and resilience of the coastal zone.
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18. How do littoral cells contribute to adaptive coastal management?
They help identify sediment sources, transport routes, and deposition areas, enabling targeted management strategies that can be adjusted over time.
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19. Why is stakeholder involvement critical in ICZM?
Involving local communities, businesses, and authorities ensures that management strategies reflect diverse interests and promote community resilience.
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20. What are some potential conflicts in sustainable coastal management?
Conflicts may arise when resource restrictions, relocation, or changes in land use negatively impact local incomes and lifestyles.
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21. How can ICZM help mitigate these conflicts?
By engaging stakeholders in decision-making, ensuring equitable resource use, and planning for adaptive solutions that benefit the broader community.
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22. What is the role of monitoring in ICZM?
Continuous monitoring of coastal changes allows for timely adjustments to management plans in response to evolving threats and environmental conditions.
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23. How does ICZM integrate environmental, social, and economic objectives?
It takes a holistic approach that balances coastal protection with the needs of local communities and long-term economic development.
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24. What benefits does a holistic ICZM strategy provide?
It enhances coastal resilience, preserves natural ecosystems, improves safety from coastal hazards, and supports sustainable livelihoods.
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25. Summarise how littoral cells and ICZM work together in coastal management.
Littoral cells allow coastlines to be managed as independent units with defined sediment dynamics, while ICZM provides a holistic, adaptive framework that involves all stakeholders to sustainably balance economic, social, and environmental needs.
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1. What are the four main policy options in UK coastal management?
They are: (1) No Active Intervention, (2) Strategic (Managed) Realignment, (3) Hold the Line, and (4) Advance the Line.
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2. What does the "No Active Intervention" policy involve?
It means no investment is made to defend against erosion or flooding, allowing the coast to erode or flood naturally.
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3. What is "Strategic (Managed) Realignment"?
It involves allowing the coastline to move naturally—usually recede—but in a controlled manner, directing erosion to less vulnerable areas.
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4. What is the goal of the "Hold the Line" policy?
To build or maintain coastal defences so that the shoreline remains in the same position over time.
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5. What does "Advance the Line" policy entail?
It involves constructing new defences seaward of the existing coastline, typically through land reclamation, to protect a broader area.
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6. What key factors influence which coastal management policy is chosen?
Decisions depend on economic asset value, technical feasibility of engineering, cultural/ecological significance, and social/political pressures.
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7. What is the purpose of conducting a Cost-Benefit Analysis (CBA) in coastal policy decisions?
CBA evaluates whether the economic benefits of defending a coastline (or adopting another policy) justify the costs of construction and maintenance.
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8. What is an Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) and why is it used?
An EIA identifies and assesses the short- and long-term environmental impacts of a proposed coastal project, informing the final decision and CBA.
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9. Who oversees coastal management in the UK and what planning tool do they use?
Coastal management is overseen by DEFRA, and they use Shoreline Management Plans (SMPs) to plan and coordinate actions.
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10. How are Shoreline Management Plans (SMPs) structured in terms of time?
SMPs plan for the future in three epochs: up to 2025, 2025–2055, and 2055+.
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11. How might a policy decision change over time in SMPs?
An area held under a "Hold the Line" policy up to 2025 might switch to "Managed Realignment" beyond 2025 as sea level rise increases defence costs.
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12. How does the case study of Happisburgh illustrate policy decision-making?
Happisburgh is managed under a "No Active Intervention" policy because defending it would disrupt sediment transport and have adverse wider impacts on the SMP.
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13. What are some economic costs associated with defending coastlines, as seen in Happisburgh?
At Happisburgh, building coastal defences costs around £6 million, nearly matching or exceeding the property values that would be saved.
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14. What are some potential benefits of erosion at sites like Happisburgh?
Erosion may "save" some high-value properties or farmland elsewhere by allowing natural sediment transport, though it often results in local loss.
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15. How do cultural and ecological values affect coastal policy decisions?
Areas with historical sites or high ecological diversity may be prioritized for protection despite high costs, to preserve cultural heritage and biodiversity.
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16. How can political and social pressures shape coastal management policies?
Local campaigns and community pressures may demand active intervention to protect cherished or economically vital areas.
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17. What does "engineering feasibility" mean in this context?
It refers to whether it is technically possible to construct effective defences for a given coastline, especially if the area is naturally unstable.
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18. What does the "Advance the Line" policy typically require?
It usually involves significant investment in land reclamation and construction of new defences seaward of the current shoreline.
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19. What outcome does a "Hold the Line" policy aim to achieve?
The goal is to maintain the current coastline position, preventing any landward migration of the sea.
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20. What is the main objective of "Strategic Realignment"?
It aims to manage and guide the natural recession of the coast in a controlled way, often sacrificing less valuable land.
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21. How do CBA and EIA inform coastal management decisions?
CBA quantifies economic trade-offs while EIA assesses environmental impacts; together, they help determine if and how interventions are justified.
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22. How can future trends like sea level rise alter current coastal management policies?
As sea levels rise, policies like "Hold the Line" may become too costly, prompting a shift towards managed realignment or other adaptive strategies.
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23. What does the need for adaptive planning imply for coastal management?
Policies must be flexible and subject to change as environmental conditions and threats evolve over time.
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24. How does the economic value of coastal land influence policy decisions?
High-value land might justify expensive defences, while lower-value areas might be better managed through realignment or non-intervention.
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25. How are compensation costs considered in policy decisions like those at Happisburgh?
Compensation for relocated residents and lost assets is weighed against the cost of building defences; if compensation is lower, non-intervention may be preferred.
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26. Why might managed realignment be a more sustainable long-term option than hard engineering?
It allows natural processes to continue, reducing maintenance costs and avoiding the adverse downstream impacts of rigid defences.
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27. What are some adverse consequences of implementing hard engineering in coastal zones?
Hard engineering can disrupt sediment transport, cause erosion downdrift, and harm local ecosystems and aesthetic values.
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28. How do Shoreline Management Plans (SMPs) facilitate coordinated coastal management?
SMPs cover extended areas that cross local council boundaries, ensuring that multiple jurisdictions work together toward a unified management strategy.
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29. How does a "No Active Intervention" policy fit into a wider SMP strategy?
It may be chosen when defending an area would negatively affect sediment dynamics or when the cost of defence outweighs the benefits.
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30. Summarise the decision-making process in coastal management policy.
Coastal managers use CBA and EIA to assess economic, environmental, and social trade-offs; decisions are based on asset values, technical feasibility, and stakeholder input, with policies adapted over time through adaptive management strategies.
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1. How can coastal management policies lead to conflicts?
They affect various stakeholders differently, creating winners and losers, and can cause disputes between homeowners, local authorities, and environmental groups.
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2. Who are considered "winners" in coastal management decisions?
Winners are those who benefit economically (protected property), environmentally (conserved habitats), or socially (communities remain intact).
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3. Who are considered "losers" in these decisions?
Losers include people who may lose property, face business or job losses, be forced to relocate, or see their natural coastline degraded by hard defences.
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4. Why are some areas left unprotected under Shoreline Management Plans (SMPs)?
Because SMPs cover entire coastal zones and resources are limited; protecting one area may mean sacrificing another, leading to inevitable trade-offs.
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5. What limits the number of areas that can be protected?
Limited financial resources and technical feasibility restrict the ability to protect every vulnerable stretch of coastline.
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6. What is a key component of coastal management decision-making?
Complex judgments involving engineering feasibility, environmental sensibility, land value, and political and social factors.
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7. How are Cost-Benefit Analysis (CBA) and Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) used?
They are integral to decision-making, helping to weigh economic costs and benefits against environmental and social impacts.
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8. How can policy decisions have long-term social impacts?
They may force relocation, break up communities, and disrupt local livelihoods, impacting cultural and social well-being.
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9. What happens to property values in areas not protected by coastal defences?
Properties at risk tend to decline in value even before they are physically threatened by erosion or flooding.
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10. How do coastal management decisions create perceived winners and losers?
By protecting some areas (creating safe zones) while allowing erosion or flooding in others, benefiting some stakeholders while disadvantaging others.
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11. How can limited funding affect coastal management outcomes?
With finite resources, managers must prioritize certain areas over others, often leaving some vulnerable and leading to social and economic disparities.
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12. What was the innovative solution at the Blackwater Estuary in Essex?
A managed realignment scheme where Essex Wildlife Trust purchased Abbotts Hall Farm and breached the sea wall to allow salt marsh formation inland.
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13. What benefits resulted from the Blackwater Estuary managed realignment?
Benefits included market-value compensation for the farm, reduced flood risk, improved water quality from reed beds, enhanced biodiversity, and new recreational paths boosting ecotourism.
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14. How did the Blackwater Estuary scheme benefit multiple stakeholders?
Landowners received fair compensation, environmentalists saw improved habitats, local businesses benefited from increased tourism, and coastal managers reduced long-term defence costs.
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15. What is "managed realignment"?
It is a strategy where the coastline is allowed to retreat naturally in a controlled manner to reduce risk and cost, often creating beneficial new habitats.
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16. How does managed realignment differ from "hold the line" policies?
Instead of maintaining the current shoreline with expensive defences, managed realignment accepts some land loss while creating natural buffers like salt marshes.
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17. What challenges do developing countries face in coastal management?
They often experience rapid erosion due to upstream dams, unplanned urbanisation, and widespread mangrove destruction, with limited resources for coordinated planning.
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18. Why are the poorest communities particularly vulnerable?
They frequently lack formal land titles, making compensation unavailable, and rely on informal coastal defences that are inadequate against rising seas and storms.
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19. What factors contribute to rapid erosion in the developing world?
Reduced sediment supply from dams, unplanned coastal development, and deforestation of mangrove forests which normally protect the coastline.
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20. How does the loss of mangroves affect coastal communities?
Mangroves act as natural defences; their removal increases vulnerability to erosion and flooding, threatening livelihoods in coastal regions.
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21. What long-term economic losses can result from coastal management conflicts?
Loss of property, decreased tourism revenue, reduced agricultural productivity, and high relocation and reconstruction costs.
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22. How can coastal management policies be seen as politically and socially contentious?
Different stakeholders have competing interests; policies may benefit some groups while disadvantaging others, leading to local conflicts and protests.
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23. How might a unified coastal management strategy resolve some conflicts?
By involving all stakeholders in decision-making, ensuring equitable resource use, and planning adaptive measures that balance protection with natural coastal processes.
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24. Why is stakeholder engagement crucial in coastal management?
It ensures that policies consider economic, social, and environmental needs, reducing conflicts and promoting sustainable outcomes.
