ergo quiz 1 Flashcards
1
Q
Cognition in work and operational settings, to optimize human well-being and system performance.
A
cognitive ergonomics
2
Q
cognitive ergonomics is concerned with mental processes such as ___ as they affect interactions among humans and other elements of a system.
A
perception, memory, reasoning, and motor response
(International Ergonomics Association)
3
Q
Scientific study and body of knowledge of human abilities, limitations, and characteristics for the appropriate design of the living and work environments.
A
ergonomics
4
Q
Concerned with ensuring that the work system is conducive to good performance and work effectiveness, and consequently, that the work environment is compatible with the health, safety, and comfort of the individual. (BCPE, 1993)
A
ergonomics
5
Q
Ergonomics has existed as a profession for over ____ years.
A
50
6
Q
5 benefits of human factors and ergonomics
A
- Reducing human error in the system performance
- Reducing hazards to individuals in the work environment
- Improving system efficiency
- Designing systems with a user focus
- Improve quality of life
7
Q
5 things under economic advantages
A
- Minimizing fatigue and overexertion
- Minimizing absenteeism and labor turnover
- Improving quality and quantity of output
- Eliminating or minimizing injuries, strains, and sprains
- Minimizing lost time and costs associated with injuries and accidents.
8
Q
2 things under progress in knowledge and technology
A
- Learning about human desires, capabilities, and limitations
- Developing and applying new theories and practices
9
Q
2 things under moral imperative
A
- Maximizing safety, efficiency, comfort, and productivity
- Improving human condition and quality of life
10
Q
It is a subset of the larger field of human factors and ergonomics.
A
cognitive ergonomics
11
Q
7 relevant topics related to human-system design
A
Mental workload, Decision making, Skilled performance, Human reliability, Human computer interaction, Work stress, training
12
Q
scientific study of the structure of organisms including their systems,organs, and tissues.
A
anatomy
13
Q
It includes the appearance and position of the various parts, the materials from which they are composed, their locations and their relationship with other parts
A
anatomy
14
Q
scientific study of how the human body functions.
A
physiology
15
Q
Physiology includes ___, ____, ____, and ___ functions of humans in good health,from organs to the cells of which they are composed.
A
mechanical, physical, bioelectrical, biochemical
16
Q
scientific study of the way the human mind works and how it influences behavior, or the influence of a particular person’s character on his or her own behavior.
A
psychology
17
Q
The field of cognitive ergonomics emerged predominantly in the ___ with the advent of the personal computers and new developments in the field of _____
A
1970s, cognitive psychology and artificial intelligence
18
Q
Cognitive ergonomic is the application of ____ to work, to achieve the optimization between people and their work.
A
psychology
19
Q
It is considered as an ______, and has rapidly developed over the last _____ years.
A
applied science, 27 years
20
Q
According to van der Veer, _______ was one of the pioneers of________, andadvocated the notion of “user-centered designs”.
A
Enid Mumford, interactive systems engineering
21
Q
2 Criteria for Developing a user-centered design
A
- Task Analysis
- Analyzing motor control cognition during visual tasks
22
Q
the evaluation of cognitive task demands
A
task analysis
23
Q
operating machinery, attention evaluation
A
Analyzing motor control cognitionduring visual tasks
24
Q
a discipline and practice that aims to ensure appropriate interaction between work, product and environment, and human needs,capabilities, and limitations.
A
cognitive ergonomics
25
cognitive ergonomics =
mental processes
26
cognitive approach that is often equated with contemporary cognitive psychology.
Human information processing model
27
Information-processing models to particular tasks describe the flow of information through the various stages and predict ___, ____, ____, and other aspects of human performance.
response times, error times, error types
28
refers to the cognitive limitations of consumers
Bounded rationality
29
According to the bounded rationality, we make suboptimal decisions due to three factors
cognitive limitations,imperfect information, and time constraints
30
When faced with complex choices,consumers may opt to ____ instead of spending time and effort analyzing the situation – leading to a sub - optimal choice.
satisfice
31
Refers to our inability as humans to process information in an optimal manner. In other words,we are unable to consider all available factors in our decision making.
cognitive limitation
32
refers to the lack of information a consumer has. Not many consumers likely to spend hours researching what it is and how it affects the performance of their decisions.
information imperfection
33
constrict our ability to process and analyze a situation and come to an optimal decision.
time constraint
34
1. We are not optimal decision makers.
2. We tend to relative satisfaction, not to perfection.
3. We have never complete information availability.
4. We are finite memory storage.
5. We cannot foresee all the possible effects of options.
6. We follow heuristics rather than algorithms.
theory of bounded rationality (Simon,1957)
35
An (in) action that was not intended.
An action not desired by a set of rules or an external observer.
An action that led the task or system outside its acceptable limits.
theory of human error (Reason, 1990)
36
a subfield of cognitive ergonomics, aims to enhance human-computer interaction by using neural correlates to be better understand situational tasks demands.
Neuroergonomics
37
is an emerging field that investigates the human brain in relation to behavior performance in natural environments and everyday settings.
Neuroergonomics
38
involves assessing safe driving protocol,enhancing elderly mobility, and analyzing cognitive abilities involved with navigation of abstract virtual environments.
Neuroergonomics research
39
This discipline has been summarize by _____, as the “scientific study of the brain mechanisms and psychological and physical functions of humans in relation to technology, work and environments.”
Raja Parasuraman
40
3 application of cognitive ergonomics
1. designing software interface to be "easy to use"
2. designing icons and visual cues
3. designing airplane cockpit or nuclear powerplant control system
41
The way people perceive and act has____ implications on the design of the objects and environment that they use.
direct
42
If physical surroundings reflect and support their natural cognitive tendencies, there will be ______
less errors and performances & productivity – positive boost
43
“Mind is as comfortable at work as the body.”
true or false
true
44
Cognitive ergonomics is a division of ergonomics (human factors), a discipline and practice that aims to ensure appropriate interaction between ___, ____ and____, and ____,____, and ____.
work, product and environment, human needs, capabilities, and limitations
45
3 things about ergonomics
1. human centered
2. multi-disciplinary
3. application oriented
46
The mind creates and controls mental functions such as
perception, attention, memory, emotions, language, deciding, thinking, and reasoning.
47
Cognitive psychology indicates different types of cognition – the mental processes, such as ____, ___, and ____, which is what the mind ___.
perception, attention, and memory | creates
48
a system that creates representations of the world so that we can act within it to achieve our goals.
mind
49
Indicates something about how the mind operates (it creates representations) and its function (it enables us to act and to achieve goals.)
cognitive psychology
50
the study of mental processes, which includes determining the characteristics and properties of the mind and how it operates.
cognitive psychology
51
How Long Does it Take to Make a
Decision?
Donder’s Pioneering Experiment (1868)
52
Structuralism and Analytic Introspection
Wundt’s Psychology Laboratory (1879)
53
What is the Time Course of Forgetting?
Ebbinghaus’s Memory Experiment (1885)
54
Principles of Psychology
William James’s Principles of Psychology (1890)
55
Donders was interested in determining how long it takes for a person to
make a decision
56
how long it takes to respond to presentation of a stimulus.
reaction time
57
asking his participants to push a button as rapidly as possible when they saw a light go on.
simple reaction time
58
asking his participants to push the left button when they saw the left light go on and the right button when they saw the right light go on
choice reaction time
59
changes the ___ response to “Perceive left light” and “Decide which button to push.”
mental response
60
the difference in reaction time between the simple and choice conditions would indicate how long it took to make the decision
that led to pushing the correct
true or false
true
61
Donders concluded that the decision-making process took
one-tenth of a second
62
Mental responses cannot be measured
directly, but must be inferred from
behavior.
true or false
true
63
indicate that when Donders measured reaction
time, he was measuring the relationship between presentation of the stimulus and the participant’s response.
dashed lines
64
he did not measure mental responses directly but inferred how long they took from the reaction times.
true or false
true
65
mental responses can be measured directly
true or false
false
66
Choice Reaction Time – Simple Reaction Time =
time to make a decision
67
In 1879, ___ years after Donders’s reaction time experiment
11
68
Wilhelm Wundt founded the first laboratory of scientific psychology at the
university of leipzig in germany
69
According to _____, our overall experience is determined by combining basic elements of experience which is called _____
structuralism, sensation
70
Wundt wanted to create a _____, which would include all the basic sensations involved in creating experience.
periodic table of the mind
71
a technique in which trained participants described their experiences and thought processes in response to stimuli.
analytic introspection
72
analytic introspection required extensive training because the participants' goal was to describe their experience in terms of elementary mental elements
true or false
true
73
Wundt made a substantial contribution to psychology by his commitment to study behavior and the mind under controlled conditions.
true or false
true
74
German psychologist ____ Ebbinghaus (1885/1913) of the University of ____
Hermann, Berlin
75
determining the nature of memory and forgetting – specifically, how rapidly information that is learned is lost over time.
Ebbinghaus
76
Ebbinghaus used a ___ method for measuring memory.
quantitative
77
he repeated lists of ___ nonsense syllables such as ___, ___, ___, and ___ to himself one at a 3me at a constant rate.
13
DAX, QEH, LUH, ZIF
78
He used nonsense syllables so that his memory would not be influenced by the meaning of a particular word.
true or false
true
79
Ebbinghaus's objective is to determine number of ___ necessary to repeat list without errors.
repetition
80
Short break intervals = fewer
repetitions necessary to relearn list
true or false
true
81
Ebbinghaus used a measure called ____, to determine how much was forgotten after a particular delay
savings
82
Savings =
(Original time to learn first) – (Time to relearn list after delay)
83
measure of the amount remembered, so he plotted this versus the time between initial learning and testing.
savings
84
forgetting occurs rapidly over the first ___ days and then occurs more slowly after that
2
85
one of the early American psychologists taught Harvard’s first psychology course and made significant observations about the mind in his textbook, Principles of Psychology (1890).
william james
86
Observations based on the functions of his own mind, not experiments.
true or false
true
87
there are no reliable result in wundt
true or false
true
88
became dissatisfied with the
method of analytic introspection.
watson
89
Watsons problem in analytic introspection
1. produced extremely variable
results from person to person.
2. results were difficult to verify because they were interpreted in terms of invisible inner mental processes.
90
Approach that Eliminate the mind as a topic of
study and study directly observable
behavior
behaviorism
91
Watson and Rosalie Rayner (1920) subjected Albert, a 9-month-old-boy, to a loud noise every time a rat (which Albert had originally liked) came close to the child.
true or false
true
92
how pairing one stimulus with another, previously neutral stimulus causes changes in the response to the neutral stimulus.
classical conditioning
93
Watson’s experiment was inspired by
pavlov's research with dogs in 1890s
94
who received his PhD from Harvard in 1931
B. F. Skinner
95
B. F. Skinner provided another tool for studying the relationship between
stimulus and response
96
focused on how behavior is strengthened by the presentation of positive reinforces. Shape behavior by rewards or punishments.
operant conditioning
97
____ behavior more likely to
be repeated.
____ behavior that less likely
to be repeated.
Rewarded, Punished
98
Behaviorism approach was dominant from the ___ through the ___.
1940s - 1960s
99
year for watson behaviorism
1913
100
year for skinner operant conditioning
1938
101
called himself a behaviorist because his focus was on measuring behavior and used behavior to infer mental processes.
Tolman
102
Tolman who from ___ to ___ was at the University of California at ___
1918 to 1954 | Berkely
103
Tolman (1938) trained rats to find food in a ____.
four-armed maze
104
Tolman believed the rat had created a ___, a representation of the maze in its mind.
cognitive map
105
A controversy over language acquisition
THE DECLINE OF BEHAVIORISM
106
- Argued children learn language through operant conditioning
- Children imitate speech they hear
- Correct speech is rewarded
Skinner (1957) – Verbal Behavior
107
- Argued that children do not only learn language through imitation and reinforcement
- Children say things they have never heard and cannot be imitating
- Children say things that are incorrect and have not been rewarded for
- Language must be determined by inborn biological program
Chomsky (1959)
107
3 things to understand complex cognitive behaviors
1. Measure observable behavior
2. Make inferences about underlying
cognitive activity
3. Consider what this behavior says
about how the mind works
107
shift from behaviorist’s stimulus- response relationships to an approach that attempts to explain behavior in terms of the mind.
INFORMATION PROCESSING
107
- way to study the mind based on insights associated with the digital computer
- states that operation of the mind occurs in stages
Information – processing approach
107
- built on James’s idea of attention
- present message A in left ear and
message B in right ear
- subjects could understand details of
message A despite also hearing
message B
Cherry (1953)
107
- developed flow diagram to show what occurs as a person directs attention to one stimulus
- unattended information does not pass through the filter
Broadbent (1958)
108
Broadbent developed ___ to show what occurs as a person directs attention to one stimulus
flow diagram
109
what did tolman contributed and when?
cognitive map, 1948
110
what did cherry contributed and when?
attention experiment
111
what happened in 1954
first commercially available digital computer
112
what happened in 1956
dartmouth and MIT conferences
113
what did broadbent contributed and when?
flow diagram, 1958
114
what did neisser contributed and when?
first cognitive psychology book, 1967
115
“making a machine behave in ways that would be called intelligent if a human were so behaving.” (McCarthy et al., 1955)
artificial intelligence
116
Newell and Simon created the ____ that could create proofs of mathema3cal theorems involving logic principles.
logic theorist program
117
developed a three – stage model of
memory
Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968)
118
what are the 3 stage model of memory
- Sensory memory (less than 1 second)
- Short term memory (a few seconds, limited capacity)
- Long – term memory (long duration, high capacity)
119
Information we remember is brought from long – term memory into short – term.
true or false
true
120
Studies behavior of people with brain damage
Neuropsychology
121
Studies electrical responses of the nervous system including brain neurons.
Electrophysiology
122
what is PET
Positron emission tomography
123
what is fMRI
Functional magnetic resonance imaging
124
fMRI and PET; Both technologies show which brain
areas are active during specific episodes of cognition.
true or false
true
125
pet and fMRI
brain imaging
126
one of the largest and most complex organs in the human body.
brain
127
Brain is made up of more than ___ nerves that communicate in trillions of connections called ____.
100 billion | synapses
128
outermost layer of brain cells.
cortex
129
functions begin in the cortex.
Thinking and voluntary movements
130
is between the spinal cord and the rest of the brain
brain stem
131
what functions are controlled here
basic functions like breathing and sleep
132
are a cluster of structures in the center of the brain.
basal ganglia
133
It coordinates messages between multiple other brain areas.
basal ganglia
134
is at the base and the back of the brain.
cerebellum
135
functions responsible the cerebellum
coordina:on and balance
136
4 lobes of brain
1. frontal lobes
2. parietal lobes
3. temporal lobes
4. occipital lobes
137
are responsible for problem solving and judgment and
motor function.
frontal lobes
138
manage
sensation, handwriting, and body
position.
parietal lobes
139
are involved with
memory and hearing.
temporal lobes
140
contain the
brain's visual processing system.
occipital lobes
141
The brain is surrounded by a layer of tissue called the
meninges
142
helps protect the brain from injury.
skull/cranium
143
The study of the physiological basis
of cognition.
COGNITIVE NEUROSCIENCE
144
Cognitive neuroscience is a subfield
of neuroscience that studies the __ processes that underlie human cognition, specially regarding the relation between brain ____, ____ and _____.
biological | structures, activity, and cognitive functions
145
The purpose of it is to determine how the brain functions and achieves performance.
Cognitive neuroscience
146
Cognitive neuroscience is considered as a branch of both ____ because it combines the biological sciences with the behavioral sciences, such as psychiatry and psychology.
psychology and neuroscience
147
is an example of a biological process that influences cognition.
decision making
148
-neurotransmitter associated with feelings of satisfaction, brain function, and decision making.
-plays a role in how we
feel pleasure.
dopamine
149
Dopamine is a big part of our unique human ability to think and plan. It helps us strive, focus, and find things interesting.
true or false
true
150
refers to the idea that a topic can be studied in a number of different ways, with each approach contributing its own dimension to our understanding.
levels of analysis
151
We do not examine topics of interest from a single perspective; we look at them from multiple angles and different points of view.
true or false
true
152
Each ___ can add small amounts of information that, when considered together, lead to greater understanding.
viewpoint
153
level of analysis steps for perception
chemical processes > neurons activated > brain structures activated > group of brain structures activated > perception
154
level of analysis steps for memory
chemical processes > neurons activated > brain storage > memory
155
basic working unit
of the brain
neuron
156
Neuron is a specialized cell designed to transmit information to other _____
nerve cells, muscle, or gland cells.
157
Each neuron has a _____
cell body, an axon, and dendrites.
158
contains the nucleus and cytoplasm. It contains mechanisms to keep cell alive.
cell body
159
extends from the cell body and often gives rise to many smaller branches before ending at nerve terminals, which receive informa:on from other neurons.
axon
160
are tube filled with fluid that transmits electrical signal to other neurons.
dendrites
161
In the 19th century, anatomists applied ___ to brain tissue, which increased the contrast between different types of tissue within the brain.
special stains
162
- When they viewed this stained tissue under a microscope, they saw a network they called a __
nerve net
163
-interconnected neurons creating a nerve net like a
highway network
164
Streets are connected without stop signs.
This allows for almost nonstop, continuous communication of signals throughout the network.
true or false
true
165
Spanish physiologist _____ was using two techniques to investigate the nature
of the nerve net.
Ramon y Cajal (1852–1934)
166
combined with the fact that the Golgi stain affects less than 1 percent of the neurons, made it possible for Cajal to clearly see that the nerve net was not continuous but was instead made up of individual units connected
true or false
true
167
Individual nerve cells transmit signals and are not continuously linked with other cells.
neuron doctrine
168
In the 1920s, ___ was able to record electrical signals from single sensory neurons, an achievement for which he was awarded the Nobel Prize in ___
edgar adrian, 1932
169
- small shafts of hollow glass filled with a conductive salt solution that can pick up electrical signals at the electrode tip and conduct these signals back to a recording device.
- Adrian recorded electrical signals
from single neurons
microelectrodes
170
two types of electrodes
1. recording electrode
2. reference electrode
171
shown with its recording tip inside the neuron
recording electrode
172
located some distance away so it is not affected by the electrical signal
reference electrode
173
The difference in charge between the recording and reference electrodes is fed into a computer and displayed on the computer’s screen.
true or false
true
174
This value, which stays the same as long as there are no signals in the neuron, is called the
resting potential
175
the inside of the neuron has a charge that is ____ more negative than the outside, and this difference continues as long as the neuron is at rest.
70 mV
176
neuron’s receptor is stimulated so that a ____ is transmitted down the axon.
nerve impulse
177
As the impulse passes the recording electrode, the charge inside the axon rises to _____, compared to the outside.
40 millivolts
178
As the impulse continues past the electrode, the charge inside the fiber reverses course and starts becoming negative again, until it returns to the resting potential. This impulse, which is called the ___ lasts about ____
action potential | 1 millisecond (1/1000 of a second)
179
“Everything a person experiences is based on ______ in the person’s nervous system.”
representations
180
means that everything we experience is the result of something that stands for
that experience.
representation
181
One possible answer to the question “how can nerve impulses stand for different qualities?” is that perhaps there are neurons that fire only to specific qualities of stimuli.
true or false
true
182
who did research with visual stimuli among cats.
David Hubel and Thorsten Wiesel
183
neurons that respond best to a specific stimulus
Feature detectors
184
The lens in front of the cat’s eye ensures that the images on the screen are focused on the cat’s _____
retina
185
- structure of the brain changes with experience
- perception is determined by neurons that fire to specific qualities of a stimulus.
Experience – Dependency Plasticity
186
The ascension from lower to higher areas of the brain corresponds to perceiving objects that range from lower (simple) to higher levels of complexity.
true or false
true
187
When we perceive different objects, we do so in a specific order that moves from lower to higher areas of the brain.
hierarchical processing
188
problem of neural representation for the senses has been called the
problem of sensory coding
189
refers to how neurons represent various characteristics of the environment.
Sensory code
190
3 types of sensory coding
- specificity coding
- population coding
- sparse coding
191
representation of a stimulus by the firing of specifically tuned neurons specialized to respond only to a specific stimulus
Specificity coding
192
representation of a stimulus by the pattern of firing of a large number of neurons
Population coding
193
representation of a stimulus by a pattern of firing of only a small group of neurons, with the majority of neurons remaining silent
Sparse coding
194
____ are served by specific areas of the brain.
specific functions (localization of functions)
195
Cognitive functioning declines in specific ways when certain areas of the brain are damaged.
true or false
true
196
contains mechanisms responsible for most cognitive functions.
Cerebral cortex
197
Cerebral cortex ____-thick layer covering the brain
3 mm
198
Primary receiving areas for the senses
occipital lobe
vision
199
meaning of fMRI
functional magnetic Resonance Imaging
200
meaning of ffa
Fusiform face area
201
meaning of PPA
Parahippocampal place area
202
meaning of EBA
Extrastriate body area
203
Measures neural activity by identifying highly oxygenated hemoglobin molecules
Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI)
204
In Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI), Activity recorded in __
voxels (3-D pixels)
205
responds specifically to faces
Fusiform face area
206
Damage to this area causes (inability to recognize faces)
prosopagnosia
207
responds specifically to places (indoor/outdoor scenes).
Parahippocampal place area (PPA)
208
responds specifically to pictures of bodies and parts of bodies.
Extrastriate body area (EBA)
209
Interconnected areas of the brain that communicate with each other.
NEURAL NETWORKS
210
structural description of the network of elements and connections forming the human brain.
Connectome
211
Nerve tracts in the human brain determined by track- weighted imaging.
Connectome
212
Primary receiving areas for the senses
parietal lobe
touch, temperature, and pain
213
Primary receiving areas for the senses
temporal lobe
hearing, taste, and smell
214
SIX COMMON FUNCTIONS DETERMINED BY RESTING STATE fMRI
Visual, Somato-motor, Dorsal attention, Executive Control, Salience, Default mode
215
Network and its Functions
Visual
Vision; and perception
216
Network and its Functions
Somato-motor
Movement and touch
217
Network and its Functions
Dorsal attention
Attention to visual stimuli and spatial locations
218
Network and its Functions
Executive Control
Higher-level cognitive tasks involved in working memory
219
Network and its Functions
Salience
Attending to survival-relevant events in the environment
220
Network and its Functions
Default mode
Mind wandering, and cognitive activity related to personal life story, social functions, and monitoring internal emotional states
