environmental science exam 2 -3-4-6 Flashcards
lithosphere
earths mantle and crust ground beneath our feet
is the rock and sediment breath our feet the plants uppermost mantle and crust
atmosphere
air surrounding the planet and it is compassed of the air surrounding the planets
hydrosphere
all water including salt and fresh underground frozen vapor .Encompasses all the water salt or fresh liquid ice or vapor
biosphere
all the planets organisms and the abiotic non living components they interact with
these sphere in reality are not isolated but instead are interconnected and have blurred lines
homeostasis
tendency for natural systems in balance to remain stable and constant . The tendency of a system to maintain relatively constant or stable internal conditions
dynamic equilibrium
when negative feedback loop creates equal and opposing directions or forces. The state reached when processes within a system are moving in opposing directions at equivalent rate so their effects can balance out
negative feedback loop
Output pushing the natural system in one direction creates an input that pushes in the opposite direction (increase in prey species population provides more food to predators that will in turn reduce prey population)
output that results from a system moving in one direction and acts as input that moves the system in the other direction
positive feedback loop
Output pushing a natural system in one direction creates input that also pushes in the same direction (global warming melts reflective ice and reveals more heat-absorbing land, which melts more ice)
which the output of one type acts as input that moves the system in the same direction
runoff
Precipitation that runs over land and into water bodies
the precipitation that flows over land and enters waterways and the flow of water and sediments or pollutants it may make the most sense to define the bays watershed as a system
airshed
Surrounding geographic area that produces air pollutants that can end up in water bodies
the geographic area that produces air pollutants likely to end up in a waterway then we want to define the boundaries of the system to include both the watershed and the airshed of the bay
Eutrophication
Nutrient over-enrichment from runoff leads to over-production of organic matter, leading to ecosystem degradation
Phytoplankton boom due to increased organic matter
Boom is followed by mass die-offs as plankton run out of food
Fall to bottom and are decomposed by bacteria, process consumes oxygen
matter
All material in the universe. Solids, liquids, gases, etc
all material in the universe that has mass and occupies space
Law of conservation of Matter
Matter is neither created nor destroyed, but rather transformed.
be transformed from one type of substance to other but to cannot be created or destroyed
element
Fundamental types of matter with specific properties that cannot be broken down into other substances
is a fundamental type of matter a chemical substance with a given set of properties that cannot be chemically broken down into substance with other properties
atom
Smallest unit that maintains properties of element. Made up of protons, neutrons, and electrons
is the smallest unit that maintains the chemical properties of the element
protons
Positive (+) charge, reside in nucleus
neutrons
Neutral, no charge, reside in nucleus
electrons
Negative charge (-), orbit the nucleus
energy
Capacity to change the composition, temperature, or position of matter
potential energy
Energy of position
example raised object ,drawn bow ,rock sitting on the edge of the cliff
kinetic energy
Energy of motion
walking or flying an airplane
chemical energy
Energy stored in chemical bonds
examples- battery ,gasoline ,food ,natural gas
First Law of Thermodynamics:
Energy is neither created nor destroyed
second law of thermodynamics
Energy will tend to change from a more ordered state to a more chaotic state, unless otherwise acted upon or influenced by outside forces. Energy is typically transformed into less useable forms
third law of thermodynamics
All molecular movement stops at a temperature of absolute zero (0 Kelvin or -273 C). At this temperature, no disorder (aka molecular movement)
autotrophs
Organisms that can use the sun’s energy directly to produce food
Green plants, algae, and cyanobacteria
producers
photosynthesis
The process of autotrophs utilizing sunlight in order to power a series of chemical reactions
Conversion of sunlight, water, and carbon dioxide into oxygen and glucose (sugar)
the sun
is primarily what supports Earth’s biological systems
heterotrophs
Organisms that gain energy by consuming other organisms
consumers - animals ,fungi ,most protozoa ,most bacteria
ecosystem
All organisms and nonliving entities that exist and interact in a particular area
primary production
Conversion of solar energy into plant material (autotrophs)
secondary production
Herbivores consume plant material in order to grow and/or maintain their own bodies
Then herbivores get consumed by predators above them on the food chain, then those predators get consumed by predators above them, etc.
modeling
aids in understanding these systems and their interactions
Interactions within and between ecosystems are complex
model
simplified representation of a complicated process, designed to aid in understanding
ecological modeling
Models designed to aid in understanding ecological processes
water cycle (hydrologic cycle)
How water flows through the environment in all its forms (liquid, gas, and solid)
summarizes how water in liquid gaseous and solid forms that flows through our environment
evaporation
Movement of water from bodies (lakes, ocean, etc) into atmosphere
Liquid > Gas
precipitation
When water vapor condenses in the atmosphere and falls
Gas > Liquid
groundwater
Water held under ground
aquifer
porous regions of rock that hold groundwater
water table
Upper limit of water held in an aquifer
carbon
The defining component of all organic molecules and beings
Autotrophs pull carbon out of the air (CO2) and from water to grow
cellular respiration
occurs when autotrophs or prey organisms are consumed, releasing carbon back into the air in the form of CO2
Process above also occurs when decomposers break down waste and dead organisms
Humans are releasing excess CO2 into the atmosphere by burning fossil fuels (decomposed organic material trapped in the Earth), deforestation (release of stored carbon), etc
nitrogen is
potent fertilizer
nitrogen must be fixed
Nitrogen is not available for uptake until it is “fixed” or combined with hydrogen to become water soluble
nitrogen -fixing bacteria
Live in the soil and make nitrogen bioavailable to plants
nitrification
Bacteria convert ammonium (NH4) into nitrite ions (NO2), then nitrate ions (NO3). Plants can then take up ions
Overuse of nitrogen-based fertilizers by humans has been outpacing nature’s denitrifying abilities
phosphorous
is naturally stored within rocks and is typically released slowly over time through weathering
Dissolved into lakes, oceans, etc and settle to bottom to form sediments
plants absorb phosphorous through
through soil > herbivores eat plants and absorb > predators eat herbivores and absorb > continues through food chain
humans have increased phosphorous
through runoff from fertilizers. Can promote hypoxia (oxygen depleted water) and phytoplankton blooms
species
Population whose members share characteristics and can produce viable offspring
population
Group of individuals of a species that live in an area at the same time
evolution
Change in populations of organisms from generation to generation, typically through genes
natural selection
Inherited characteristics that increase survival and reproduction are passed on more frequently to future generations, transforming populations over time
interaction between genes and the environment, over time
adaptation
Traits that promote reproductive success
mutations
Accidental changes in DNA. Can be beneficial, harmful, or deadly
convergent evolution
Unrelated species living in similar conditions, but in different locations, acquire similar traits due to similar selective pressures
artificial selection
Breeding and selection of traits in species directed by human beings aka
bioversity
Life’s complexity, including the variety in genes, species, populations, communities, and ecosystems
speciation
The process by which new species are generated
allopatric speciation
Where speciation occurs through physical separation of a population
Over time, genetic mutations and variations will create changes in the isolated populations
May reach a point where even if the populations are re-introduced, breeding cannot occur.
phylogenetic tree
Diagrams that track and connect divergence in species over time
Points where branches split are last common ancestor and traits are acquired or lost between those points
fossil
are vital in connecting organisms ,their evolved traits and common ancestors
extincition
Disappearance of an entire species
Typically due to environmental changes that are too fast for natural selection to occur and/or populations are too small and lack genetic variation
endemic
Species that are only found in a particular area
More prone to extinction because genetic variation is typically lower and gene pool is smaller
background extinction rate
Extinctions that occur at a gradual and relatively constant rate
mass extinction events
Events that kill off mass amounts of species over short time spans
ecology
Study of the interactions between organisms and their relationships with environments
Organisms, populations, communities, ecosystems, landscapes, biosphere
population ecology
Examines abundance, distribution, and changes in composition (increase or decline) of populations over time
community ecology
Examines species diversity and interactions among species
ecosystem ecology
Study of biological entities and non-living factors and their interactions
landscape ecology
examines how populations communities and ecosystems are distributed
population size
Number of individual organisms at a given time
population density
Number of individuals per unit area
population distribution
Spatial arrangement of individuals in an area
sex ratio
Proportion of males to females
age structure
Age distribution of population
exponential growth
When a population increases by a fixed percentage each year
limiting factors
Factors that constrain population growth. Can be physical, chemical, or biological constraints of the environment
carrying capacity
The maximum population size an environment can sustain
competition
When multiple organisms seek the same, limited resource(s)
Resources like water, food, land, shelter, mates, sunlight, etc
intraspecific
Within same species
interspecific
Between different species
resource planning
Species divide resources by specializing in different ways
Example: Natural selection may push birds to have different beaks in order to exploit different resources or same resources in different ways
predation
One species (Predator) hunts, captures, kills, and consumes another (Prey)
parasitism
One organism (Parasite) exploits another (Host) for nourishment or other benefits
herbivory
Animals feeding on plant tissues for energy
mutualism
Two or more species benefit from interacting with one another
community
Populations of organisms living in the same area at the same time
trophic level
Rank in feeding hierarchy
Energy decreases at each higher trophic level. Most is lost as respiration, heat, and waste
move from primary producers (autotrophs) > primary consumers (herbivores) > secondary consumers > tertiary consumers
food chain
Linear series of feeding relationships
food web
Feeding interactions
detritivores (decomposers)
Consume non-living, organic matter
Fungi, bacteria, worms, etc
keystone species
A species that holds strong and/or wide-reaching impacts on greater community/ecosystem.
trophic cascade
Powerful, indirect interactions that can control and shape entire ecosystems
Loss of keystone species can lead to loss of these important interactions
disturbance
Event that has drastic impacts on environmental conditions, leading to changes in ecosystem. Can cause succession.
sucession
When a severe disturbance eliminates many species from a site and a process of establishing new species occurs
primary sucession
Built from scratch. No vegetation, soil life, or species remain after disturbance. Entirely new ecosystem must be established.
pioneer species
Species that arrive first and colonize new area
secondary sucession
Some life remains after disturbance, act as building blocks to help shape process of regrowth
regime shift
The character of an ecosystem fundamentally changing
Could be due to climatic shift, loss of keystone species, or invasive species
novel communities
Communities, or combinations of species, that have previously not existed
Typically resulting from human disturbance and/or invasive species
More novel communities expected as climate change progresses along with human developments and expansion
invasive species
Introduced species that do exceptionally well in new environment
Spread quickly and widely, out-compete or dominate native species, and become pervasive in ecosystem
3 responses
Prevention, control, eradication
restoration ecology
The attempt to restore ecosystems to their previous condition
In many cases, trying to restore functionality (air and water filtration, for example)
And/or return ecosystem to natural state, before human disturbance
Could involve removal (invasive) or addition (natives species) of factors, including process like fires or flooding.
biome
Classification of large regions based upon common flora (plants), fauna (animals), and general habitat characteristics
Abiotic factors considered:
Temperature, precipitation, soil conditions, air circulation, topography, etc.
climate diagrams
Map temperatures and precipitation over given time (typically a year). Helps define biomes
Aquatic biomes exist as well
population growth
Technological innovation, improved sanitation, medical advances, and increased agricultural output allowed for greater growth
growing fastest in poorer nations and populations are beginning to decrease in some richer nations
china’s one child policy
1970s: Birth rate of 5.8 children per woman, 2.8% growth annually
Due to extremely fast population growth, soils and water were depleting, and air was becoming polluted. Today, breathing air in Beijing is equivalent to smoking 40 cigarettes a day
“One-Child” program began, limiting families to one child only
Chinese women now have only 1.6 children and growth rate has dwindled to 0.5%
repercussions
Population with shrinking labor force, increased percentage of older population, and too few women (because in culture, boys are preferred, many female fetuses aborted)
IPAT model
Used to (roughly) measure human impact on the environment.
impact
Population x Affluence x Technology
Higher Population (P) means more people consuming resources
Greater Affluence (A) typically means greater per capita (per person) resource consumption
Advancements in Technology (T) typically results in more resource, habitat, and species exploitation, although technology can also reduce impacts
demography
Study of populations: Size, density, distribution, age structure, sex ratios, birth rates, death rates, immigration, and emigration
Estimated that population size will surpass 9.8 billion by 2050
density and distribution
Clustered in more moderate climates and around coasts and water bodies
age structure
Some nations have more stabilized populations while others are growing
sex ratio
In humans, slight favoring of males at birth (106 males per 100 females) because males are more prone to death
population pyramids
using a paired bar chart-type graphic, shows the numbers or percentages of males and females in each age group. T
infant mortality rate
Frequency of children dying in infancy. Has dropped significantly over time.
global growth rate
Has declined in recent years due to falling birth rates in some parts of the world. Population continues to grow however, because growth rate is still positive
total fertility rate
Average number of children born per woman
replacement fertility
Total fertility rate that stabilizes population
rate of natural increases
Natural rate of population change, due to birth and death rates alone.
demographic transition
Model of economic and societal changes, resulting from industrialization, where birth and death rates fall while life expectancy rises
pre industrial
Birth and death rates high. Low or no population growth
transitional
Industrialization begins. Death rates drop, while birth rates remain high. Strong population growth
industrial
Birth rates fall. Death rates continue to decline. Population growth slows
post industrial
Birth and Death rates low. Population stabilizes
family planning
Effort to plan the number and spacing of children
birth control
An effort to control number of children born.
contraceptives
Attempt to prevent pregnancy despite sexual intercourse. Include condoms, spermicide, hormonal treatments, intrauterine devices (IUDs), and permanent sterilization (tubal ligation or vasectomy)
wealth and environmental impact
Richest 1/5th of nations consume 85% of world’s resources. Most wealthy nations are in ecological deficit
Affluent societies have much larger per capita ecological footprints
Globally, we are now in a deficit, where the resources extracted, wastes produced, and overall ecological impacts surpasses that of Earth’s capacity
example of natural selection
evolving long necks has enabled giraffes to feed on leaves that others can’t reach, giving them a competitive advantage. Thanks to a better food source, those with longer necks were able to survive to reproduce and so pass on the characteristic to the succeeding generation.
thermal energy
boiling water on a stove -is produced when the atoms and molecules in a substance vibrate faster due to a rise in temperature.
Which of the following is false in regards to Earth’s spheres?
b- The biosphere includes all the planet’s living organisms but not the abiotic (soils, rivers, mountains, etc) they live in and interact with
Select the pairing that is correct in regards to feedback loops
c -The process of eutrophication causes death, leading to the further proliferation of bacteria, depleting oxygen from waters and causing more death
True or false? The law of conservation of matter states that matter cannot be transformed unless energy input is greater than output
false - matter is either created or destroyed but only transformed
Which of the following is false in regards to the laws of thermodynamics?
d- none all of the above are true
True or false? All energy and life on Earth starts with the sun, whose energy is absorbed by heterotrophs, and then moves up the food chain through autotrophs
false - the sun relies on autotrophs which is a producer
Which of the following is false in regards to the carbon cycle?
Autotrophs emit carbon into the air when they photosynthesize
Animal respiration emits oxygen into the atmosphere
Deforestation doesn’t contribute much to greenhouse gas emissions because the only downside is the small amounts of carbon emitted when trees are cut down
all of the above
Which statement is false in regards to the nitrogen cycle?
Free nitrogen (N2) can be readily absorbed from the air by plants
Which statement is true in regards to the phosphorous cycle
Plants absorb phosphorous through water and soil and then the mineral moves up the food chain through consumption
Humans promote hypoxic dead zones in water bodies through the overuse of phosphorous -based fertilizers
Phosphorous is released naturally and slowly through the weathering of rocks
all of the above
Which statement is true in regards to evolution and selection
d - none of the above
Which statement is true regarding extinctions
Endemic species are more vulnerable to extinctions
Mass extinction events are times where there are many more extinctions over a short time period when compared to background extinction rates
We are currently in the 6th mass extinction because we’re greedy and want to be the only lifeforms left on the planet (except for our pets and the animals we eat)
all of the above
True or false? Humanity’s advancements that have allowed us to surpass many of our limiting factors and carrying capacities are leading us into other limiting factors / carrying capacities
We don’t know. We cannot determine this right now. From the data available, this would seem likely, but nothing is set in stone. We still have time to make changes and for black swan events (random, significant discoveries or changes) to occur. It’s largely going to be up to us and our actions that will determine.
True or false? The primary reason why vegetarian and vegan diets are more efficient and sustainable than animal-based ones is because of the inherent inefficiency of energy being lost when moving up trophic levels / the food chain.
true
Which of the following is false in regards to disturbances and succession?
In both primary and secondary succession, pioneer species arrive and colonize the open spaces
When primary succession occurs, the soils are typically too degraded for mature, more complex species to take root and establish themselves
The difference between primary and secondary succession is that primary is where no species remain (or very very few) after a disturbance while secondary is when a decent number of species remain
all of this is true
true or false Restoration ecology could involve the removal of invasive species and/or the addition of natives to an area?
true
Which of the following is false in regards to the demographic transition?
Stage 3 is when birth and death rates are both low, and the population stabilizes
Create your own example of how competition can lead to resource partitioning
organism - animals
chose your competition - animals compete in order to see where they would go in habitation
adaption - include the long necks of giraffes for feeding in the tops of trees, the streamlined bodies of aquatic fish and mammals, the light bones of flying birds and mammals, and the long daggerlike canine teeth of carnivores
Allopatric Speciation Pick Your Own Adventure Game!
choose animal - The northern spotted owl and the Mexican spotted owl
choose location - along the west coast or the south
choose disturbance-along the west coast of the United States, two separate sub-species of spotted owls exist. The northern spotted owl has genetic and phenotypic differences from its close relative, the Mexican spotted owl, which lives in the south.
This seems logical because as the distance increases, the various environmental factors would generally have less in common than locations in close proximity. Consider the two owls: in the north, the climate is cooler than in the south causing the types of organisms in each ecosystem differ, as do their behaviors and habits. Also, the hunting habits and prey choices of the southern owls vary from the northern owls. These variances can lead to evolved differences in the owls, resulting in speciation.
