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epidemiology chapter 1-4 > chapter 1-4 > Flashcards

chapter 1-4 Flashcards

1
Q

what is epidemiology and how is it used in the real world

A

is commonly refered to as the foundation of public health because it is important information for improving the health and soical conditions concerned with the collection health of a group of individuals who share one or more observable personal characteristic
is the study of the distribution and determinants of health related states or events in human populations and the application of this study to prevent and control health population

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2
Q

how does epidemiology differ from clinical medicine

A

epidemiology - you are dealing with an entire population but in clinical medicine you are dealing with one patient

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3
Q

what are the aims epidemiology

A

describe the distribution ,the pattern and the history of disease in a population.

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4
Q

what is surveillance and the different types of surveillance

A

surveillance - the collection of data pertaining to the occurrences of specific disease disease injury and events
active - outbreak real time rare disease
passive - creating system to collect data
sentinel - a warning system high specific cause of disease social media

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5
Q

epidemic

A

a widespread occurrence of an infectious disease in a community at a particular time.
example - sickle cell in Africa

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6
Q

pandemic

A

this is going to occur worldwide
example COVID19

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7
Q

syndemic

A

when there are two or more disease in a population
example COVID 19 and racism and violence

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8
Q

epidemic threshold

A

is the number of cases or deaths that would support the conclusion that an epidemic was underway

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9
Q

worst disease outbreak in U.S history

A

smallpox ,yellow fever ,cholera,tyhoid fever ,spanish flu ,D phtheria polio ,measles ,cryptopordium ,whooping cough ,AIDS

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10
Q

describe why a standard case definition and adequate levels of reporting are important in epidemiologic investigations

A

it is ensured that every case is equivalent regardless of when or where it occurred or who identified it
allows for standardization of the cases of interests both with ongoing outbreak investigation and possibly between outbreak investigations that differ over time or geographic location

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11
Q

morbidity and mortality

A

morbidity - number of illness
mortality - number of deaths

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12
Q

what is application of epidemiologic triangle

A

it is consists of an external agent a susceptible host and an environment that brings the host and agent together
asthma =vector
host - age race ,gender ,genetic profile cytokine and lung injury response to acute infection
environment - microbiome ,SHS ,LPS and vitamin E antibiotics
agent - viral genomics ,virulence factors

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13
Q

what are the determinants of health

A

determinant - is a collective or individual risk factor or set of factors that is casually related to a health condition outcome or other defined characteristics
example biologic agent (bacteria and Viruses ),chemical agents Toxic pesticides and less specific factors stress and lifestyle
examples may include social conditions or events relationships ,neighborhoods ,communities ,institutions healthcare ,economic political and cultural factors

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14
Q

how are health outcomes measured

A

reflect the impact of the healthcare service or intervention on the health status of patients
examples - patients who died from surgery
the rate of surgical complications or hospital acquired infections

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15
Q

routes of transmission and the modes of transmission

A

direct transmission is the uninterrupted and immediate transfer of an infectious agent from one person to another requires physical contact between the infected host and a susceptible person and the physical transfer pf a pathogen
examples - HIV and AIDS Gonorrhea
indirect transmission - occurs when an agent is transferred or carried by some intermediate item organism means or process to host resulting in disease
Airborne tramissions - occurs when droplets or dust particles carry the pathogen to the host and causes pertusis ,pnenumoccal ,pneumonia and diphtheria rubella
vector borne transmission - occurs when an arthropod mosquito ,fleas and tick and lice conveys the infectious agents and it is response for the transmission of the pathogen to the host.

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16
Q

what is bioterrorism and types of bioterrorism agents and examples

A

terrorism involving the releasing of toxic biological agents
examples Anthrax ,Botulism and Plague
are pathogenic organisms or biological toxins that are used to produce death and disease in human animals or plants for terrorist purposes

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17
Q

what are the current leading causes of death in the U.S

A

heart disease ,cancer and COVID 19

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18
Q

what are the three levels of prevention used in public health and epidemiology

A

primary prevention -intervening before health effects occur, through. measures such as vaccinations, altering risky behaviors
example - west Nile virus - protect yourself from mosquito bites
secondary prevention-screening to identify diseases in the earliest. stages, before the onset of signs and symptoms, through measures such. as mammography and regular blood pressure testing
example - a void mosquito bites by wearing long pants and sleeves and socks and shoes
tertiary prevention-prevention of complications in people who have already developed disease, and in whom disease prevention is no longer an option.
example -repair any damaged window and door screens, remove standing water from areas around your home
no vaccinations for west Nile virus

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19
Q

what is the difference between active and passive primary prevention

A

active necessitates behavior change on the part of the subject
example - vaccinations ,wearing helmets or seatbelts
passive - does not require behavioral change
example - fortifications of milk and bread products

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20
Q

distribution

A

the occurrence of disease and other health outcomes varies in a populations within subgroups of the populations more frequently affected then others

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21
Q

central activity in epidemiology

A

counting the number of disease

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22
Q

rehabitiation

A

any attempt to restore an afflicted person to a useful productive and satisfying lifestyle

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23
Q

vehicle borne transmission

A

involves an inanimate object that conveys an infectious agent to a host
for example this occurs when a pathogen such as cholera or shigellosis is carried in drinking water and swimming pools

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24
Q

mechanical transmission

A

such as when the pathogen spreads using a host ( fly flea and louse or rat) as a mechanism for a ride for nourishment or as part of a physical transfer process

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25
Q

biological transmission

A

is when the pathogen undergoes changes as part of the lifestyle while within the host and vector before transmitting to other host

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26
Q

chain of infection

A

More specifically, transmission occurs when the agent leaves its reservoir or host through a portal of exit, is conveyed by some mode of transmission, and enters through an appropriate portal of entry to infect a susceptible host.

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27
Q

formite

A

is an inanimate nonliving object such as a piece of clothing a door handle and utensil that can harbor an infectious agent and is capable by the means of transmission

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28
Q

vector

A

is an invertebrate animals that transmit infection by conveying the infectious agent from one host to other

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29
Q

reservior

A

is the habitat living or nonliving in or which an infectious agent lives and grows and multiples on which it depends on its survival nature

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30
Q

active carrier

A

an individual who has been exposed to and harbors a disease causing organism and who has done so for some time

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31
Q

convalescent carrier

A

an individual who harbors a pathogen and who although in the recovery phase of the course of the disease is still infectious

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32
Q

healthy carrier

A

an individual who has been exposed to and harbors a pathogen but has not become ill or shown any of the symptoms of the disease

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33
Q

incubatory carrier

A

an individual who has been exposure to and harbors pathogen is in the beginning stages of the disease and is displaying symptoms and the ability to transmit the disease

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34
Q

intermittent carrier

A

an individual who has been exposed to and harbors a pathogen and who can spread the disease in different places or at different intervals

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35
Q

case severity

A

found by looking at several variables that are effective measures of it

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36
Q

case

A

is a person in a population who has been identified as having the particular disease

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37
Q

case definition

A

ensures that cases are consistently diagnosed regardless of where or when they were identified and who diagnosed the case

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38
Q

primary case

A

first disease case in the population

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39
Q

secondary case

A

a person who becomes infected and ill after a disease has been introduced into a population and who is infected as a result from the primary case

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40
Q

index case

A

the first case brought to the attention of the epidemiologist

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41
Q

suspect case

A

is an individual who has all the signs and symptoms of a disease or condition but has not be diagnosed to having the disease or the cause of symptoms by the primary suspect.

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42
Q

mixed epidemic

A

occurs when victims of a common source epidemic have person to person contact with others and spread the disease resulting in a propagated outbreak

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43
Q

common source epidemic

A

arises from a specific scource

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44
Q

propagated epidemic

A

arises from the infections transmitted from one infected person to other

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45
Q

efficacy

A

refers to the ability of the program to produce a desired effect among those who participate in the program and those who do not

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46
Q

effectiveness

A

refers to the ability of the program to produce benefits among those who offered the program

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47
Q

know the key landmarks in history

A

Hippocrates wrote Epidemic I, Epidemic III, and“On Airs, Waters, and Places” in 400 BC
Disease associated with physical environment
Move from supernatural to environmental explanations for disease

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48
Q

Edward Jenner

A

smallpox vaccination

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49
Q

Benjamin jesty

A

a farmer/dairyman in the mid 1700s noticed his milkmaids never got smallpox but cowpox
exposure his wife and children to cowpox
variolation - Chinese has observed for centuries that getting a weaker strain of smallpox was protective against a stronger strain of the disease

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50
Q

smallpox virus

A

caused by variola virus
chicken pox is a varicella virus
shingles is a varicella zoster virus

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51
Q

john graunt

A

father of statistics in epidemiology
looked at death record and discovered different patterns

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52
Q

william farr

A

Compiler of Abstracts” and one of the founder of medical statistics

Development of a more sophisticated system to code medical conditions

Provided the foundation for the International Classification of Diseases

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53
Q

John snow

A

father of epidemiology ,cholera outbreaks ,miasma and broad street in London mapping where individuals get water and also took out water handle
Used a spot map of cases and tabulation of fatal attacks and death
Evaluated deaths from two water sources to determine origin of water contamination and increased deaths
Worked with William Farr

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54
Q

Koch postulates

A

postulates:
1. Microorganisms must be observed in every case of disease
2. Isolated and grown in pure culture
3. Pure culture must reproduce disease
4. Microorganisms must be observed in, and recovered from, diseased animals
Proving a causal relationship between a microbe and disease

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55
Q

Ignaz Semmelweis

A

Mid-19th century, Viennese hospital
Postulated that medical students and physicians had contaminated their hands during autopsies
Introduced the practice of hand washing

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56
Q

the development made of certain study designs such as natural experiments

A

intervention - naturally occurring situation
control conditions - determined by nature or by factors outside of the investigators
epidemiologist role - analyze and collect data

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57
Q

contemporary examples in epidemiology

A

Seat belt law- Did seat belt use reduce fatalities from motor vehicle accidents?

Tobacco tax (Sin Tax) – Did the increase in cigarette price decrease the use of cigarettes?

Helmet Law – Did requiring the use of helmets by motorcyclists reduce the number of head injuries?

Legislative ban on smoking in public places – Did the number of CVD reduce?

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58
Q

atomic theory

A

the belief that everything is made up of tiny particles

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59
Q

scurvy

A

a disease marked by spongy and bleeding gums and bleeding under the skin and extreme weakness

60
Q

influenza pandemic

A

Mortality – 50-100 million persons
20 – 40-year-olds most susceptible
2.5% case-fatality rate versus 0.1% for other influenza pandemics

61
Q

the black death

A

Bubonic Plaque
1346- 1352
25%-33% population of Europe claimed

62
Q

childbed fever

A

a uterine infection usually of the placental site after birth

63
Q

cholera

A

is an acute infectious disease characterized by watery diarrhea ,loss of fluid and electrolytes dehydration and collapse

64
Q

anthrax

A

plague by farmers caused by serious bacterial infection usually fatal destroyed them economically

65
Q

multifactorial etiology

A

the promotion of the idea that some diseases especially chronic disease

66
Q

typhoid fever

A

is an infectious disease continued fever physical and mental depression ,rosed colored spots on the chest

67
Q

vitamins

A

are organic components in foods that are needed in very small amounts for metabolism growth and maintaining good health

68
Q

1964 united states general

A

issued a warning that smoking can cause cancer

69
Q

infectivity

A

The capacity of an agent to produce infection or disease
Measured by the secondary attack rate

70
Q

pathogenicity

A

The capacity of the agent to cause disease in the infected host
Measured by the proportion of individuals with clinically apparent disease

71
Q

virulence

A

Refers to the severity of the disease
Measured by the proportion of severe or fatal cases
If fatal, use case fatality rate

72
Q

toxigencity

A

The capacity of the agent to produce a toxin or poison

73
Q

resistance

A

The ability of the agent to survive adverse environmental conditions.

74
Q

Antigenicity

A

The ability of the agent to induce antibody production in the host.

75
Q

host

A

A person (or animal) who permits lodgment of an infectious disease agent under natural conditions.

76
Q

inapparent infection

A

No symptoms of infection present
Important because disease can be transmitted to unsuspecting hosts
In asymptomatic individuals, clinicians can look for serologic evidence of infection

77
Q

colonization

A

-agents multiply on the surface of the body without invoking tissue or immune response.

78
Q

infestation

A

the presence of a living infectious agent on the body’s exterior surface, upon which a local reaction may be invoked.

79
Q

what is representativeness

A

degree to which the sample population resemble the population from which the data have been taken

80
Q

generalizability(external validity)

A

ability to apply the finding of the study to the population that did not participate in the study the general population

81
Q

thoroughness

A

the extent to which all the cases of a health phenomenon have been identified

82
Q

when is confidentiality important

A

Privacy Act of 1974
Prohibits the release of confidential data without the consent of the individual – Protects data from federal agencies only, allows access of data if its your own
Freedom of Information Act
Mandates the release of government information to the public, except for personal and medical files
The Public Health Service Act
Protects confidentiality of information collected by some federal agencies – all NCHS systems
For conditions that might be stigmatizing, such as reproductive, sexual, public health, and psychiatric health concerns

83
Q

know the acts and laws related to protecting individuals information

A

the HIPAA privacy rule
Refers to the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act of 1996

Sections of HIPAA “…require the Secretary of HHS to publicize standards for the electronic exchange, privacy and security of health information…”

Categories of protected health information pertain to individually identifiable data

84
Q

what statistics are derived from vital statistics

A

national vital statistics system
births, deaths, marriages, divorces, and fetal deaths. They also record information about the cause of death, or details of the birth.

85
Q

what data is on a death certificate

A

cause of death, location of death, time of death and some other personal information about the deceased.

86
Q

what are the strengths and limitations of mortality data

A

Factors inherent in the data may limit their usefulness
Examples of limitations:
Death certificates – useful for identifying cause?
Cross-sectional data – ability to ascertain cause?
Representative of BRFSS data?
Insurance data to assess health disparities?

87
Q

disease registries such as SEER are good for what type of data

A

collects cancer data from different cancer registries across the U.S
provides information about trends in cancer incidence mortality and survival

88
Q

if I wanted info on characteristics of the U.S population where would I go in order to find that data

A

The United States Census Bureau

89
Q

identify sources to obtain epidemiological data

A

Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System
Gathers data primarily applicable to chronic diseases on behaviorally related phenomenon (e.g., risk behaviors)
Largest telephone based survey in the world
U.S bureau Census - provides information on the general social and economic characteristic’s of the U.S population

National center for health statistics- Scope of information is extensive.
Examples of sources of data collection systems and surveys:
National Health Interview Survey (NHIS)
National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES)
National Vital Statistics System (NVSS)

National Health Interview Survey-The NCHS conducts the NHIS, which has been in operation since 1957.
Data from the NHIS are used for monitoring how well the nation is progressing toward specific health objectives as well as for tracking people’s health status and access to health care.
The goal of the survey is to collect data from a representative sample of the U.S. population.

National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES-Evolved from the National Health Survey Act of 1956
The act provided for the creation of studies to characterize illness and disability in the United States.
A special feature of NHANES
Collection of information from physical examinations coupled with interviews
Operates as a continuous survey with data released in 2-year cycles (since 1999).

Patient databases from provider groups, health insurance plans, and other insurers
Clinical data (e.g., from clinical laboratories, physicians’ records, hospitals, and special clinics)
School health records
Information from absenteeism reports
Armed forces records

90
Q

what are the possible value and limitations which hospital ,absentee or insurance data

A

Capturing Accurate Data. In a study at an ophthalmology clinic, EHR data matched patient-reported data in 23.5 percent of records. …
Fragmented Patient Care. …
Data Privacy & Security. …
Data Visualization. …
Document Processing and Analysis.

91
Q

what is a census tract and how many residents are considered in the track

A

census tract - are small relatively permanent statistical subdivisions of a county or statistically equivalent entity that can be updated by local participants prior to each decennial census as part of the Census Bureau

92
Q

demographic transition

A

shift from high birth and death rates found in societies to lower birth and death rates in developed countries

93
Q

epidemiologic transition

A

shift in the pattern of morbidly and mortality from infectious and communicable disease to chronic degrative disease

94
Q

incubation period

A

the time interval between exposure to an infectious agent and the appearance of the first signs and symptoms of the disease

95
Q

zoonoses

A

infectious disease that are potentially the transmittable to humanism by vertebrate animals
examples - rabies and the plague

96
Q

infectivity

A

The proportion of persons exposed to an infectious agent who become infected by it.

97
Q

herd immunity

A

greater likelihood of spread = greater percent of the population that must be vaccinated A situation in which a sufficient proportion of population is immune to an infectious disease through vaccination and prior illness
immunity - is not 0 but really low

98
Q

what is the natural history of the disease

A

natural course of disease progression from being to find clinical end points
research is being utilized identify where in a disease natural history effective intervention might be implemented

99
Q

know the difference between active and passive immunity

A

active - natural active results from an infection by agent artificial active results from an injection with a vaccine
passive immunity - natural passive performed antibodies are passed to the fetus during pregnancy and provide short term immunity in the newborn

100
Q

Classify acute and chronic disease to infectivity and communicability

A

acute - something with an sudden onset and occurs in rapid speed
chronic - something that occurs in a slow mild rush and it is the most deathly

101
Q

What are the clinical endpoints in a disease

A

Recovery
Disability
Death

102
Q

know examples of direct and indirect transmission

A

direct contact - touching ,kissing ,sexual contact contact with secretions or contact with body lesions
indirect contact infections spread when an infected person sneezes or coughs sending infectious droplets to the air

103
Q

what is the role of the environment in disease transmission

A

the home environment particular in the kitchen and bathroom it serves as a reservoir of a large number of microorganisms particularly in any Enterobacteriaceae and infectious diseases

104
Q

know the five categories of disease

A

physical diseases
mental diseases
infectious disease
non - infectious disease
deficiency disease
inherited disease
generative disease and social disease and self inflicted disease

105
Q

describe notifiable diseases reported in the United states

A

cholera
cryptosporidiosis
Giardiasis
Hepatitis A
Malaria
Legionellosis
Salmonellosis

106
Q

identify common sources and modes of disease transmission

A

vertical transmission - refers to transmission from an individual to its offspring through sperm ,placenta and milk or vaginal organs
horizontal transmission - refers to the transmission of an infected individual to a susceptible contemporary involves direct transmission sexually transmitted diseases food borne or blood borne
direct contact, droplets, a vector such as a mosquito, a vehicle such as food, or the airborne route.

107
Q

Airborne -Respiratory

A

Common cold, influenza, COVID-19, Measles, Smallpox

108
Q

Intestinal

A

Cholera, Giardiasis, Hepatitis

109
Q

Open Sores - Lesions

A

AIDS, Gonorrhea

110
Q

Zoonoses – Vectors-borne

A

Rabies, Ebola, Lyme disease, Malaria, Yellow Fever

111
Q

Fomites

A

Common colds, influenza, Meningitis

112
Q

Absorption

A

Skin and mucus membranes

113
Q

Inhalation

A

Respiratory through air droplets

114
Q

Ingestion

A

Gastrointestinal through consumption of food or drink

115
Q

Injection

A

From needle or other object

116
Q

Portal of Exit

A

Site where infectious agents leave the body, e.g., respiratory system, skin lesions.

117
Q

Portal of Entry

A

Locus of access to the human body, e.g., mouth and digestive system

118
Q

vehicles

A

contaminated water, infected blood, food.

119
Q

formites

A

-inanimate objects laden with disease-causing agents.

120
Q

vectors

A

living insects or animals involved with transmission of the disease agent.

121
Q

know the examples of agents of infectious disease including their characteristics and infections diseases under each control mechanisms and carriers of agent discussed in class

A

bacteria -Tuberculosis (TB), salmonellosis and streptococcal
rickettsia -Typhus fever, Rocky Mountain spotted fever , Q-Fever
virus Hepatitis A, Herpes, Influenza and HIV
Mycoses (Fungi) -Coccidioidomycosis, ringworm, athlete’s foot
Protozoa -Malaria, amebiasis, bebeiosis
Helminths -Roundworm, pinworm, tapeworms

122
Q

Ro or Rnaught

A

Expected number of secondary cases produced by a single infection in a completely susceptible population
number 15

123
Q

why use descriptive or analytic studies

A

descriptive studies -used to identify a health problem that may exist. Characterize the amount and distribution of disease.
To evaluate and compare trends in health and disease.
To provide a basis for planning, provision, and evaluation of health services.
To identify problems for analytic studies
Creation of hypotheses
analytic studies - follow descriptive studies, and are used to identify the cause of the health problem.

124
Q

describe the uses strengths and limitations of selective descriptive study designs

A

case reports -simplest category, individual profile
Case series- summarize characteristics of patients (small group) from major clinical settings.
- cross sectional studies -surveys of the population, collect data from individuals in a population
ecological studies -makes comparisons between two variables of interests at the aggregate level on the population (e.g., obesity and high fat diet)

125
Q

case reports and case series pros and cons

A

pros - Inexpensive
Reporting sentinel events / rare events areas for new research
Recognition of epidemics
cons -Not representative
Lack a comparison group (control)
Cannot establish a cause-effect relationship

126
Q

cross sectional study limitations and strength

A

limitations-Hard to detangle risk factors from factors associated with survivor

Cannot study low prevalence diseases

Cannot determine temporality of exposure and disease (or causation)

Possible response bias
strengths - prevalence study ,exposure and disease measures obtained at individual levels
both probability and non probability used

127
Q

ecological studies advantage vs disadvantage

A

advantages - quick and simple ,inexpensive good approach for generating hypotheses when a disease is an unknown ecology
disadvantages - Lack of motivation for change in the environment.
Changing lifestyles can be extremely difficult.
Not all diseases can be prevented.
Many people are in denial and do not believe they are at risk.

128
Q

understand the four common measures and provide an example for each

A

measures of disease frequency - to quantify health events or health characteristics in order to describe and compare populations
risk -if 1 in 10 people exposed to a substance gets sick, the exposed AR is 0.1. If 1 in 100 people who are not exposed get sick, the unexposed AR is 0.01.
rate -70 new cases of breast cancer per 1,000 women per year.
prevalence -1980 the Framingham Het Study examined 2,477 subjects for cataracts and found that 310 had them. So, the prevalence was 310/2,477 = 0.125
incidence rate- 795,000 new strokes in the United States, annually

129
Q

difference between crude and adjusted rates and application

A

crude -refers to rates that are NOT adjusted for other population factors (e.g., Age differences between populations)
Make comparisons carefully!
Age-adjusted rates is most appropriate

Commonly expressed per 1,000 or per100,000
a crude death rate of 9.5 (per 1000 people) in a population of 1 million would imply 9500 deaths per year in the entire population.
adjusted rates - an artificially created figure that enables comparison across time and space. It should only be compared with another adjusted rate that was computed using the same “standard” population.
per 100,000 population

130
Q

understand the relationship between prevalence and incidence

A

New cases
Measures changes in disease occurrence
Used for investigating the cause of disease
formula -The # NEW cases occurring
Total Population at risk at some designated time
prevalence -formula
The # of EXISTING cases divide by Total population at some designated time
Existing cases
Measures how much disease in a population (a snapshot)
Used for description, planning health care needs

131
Q

attack rates

A

Alternative form of incidence rate

Used for diseases observed in a population for a short time period.

Not a true rate because time dimension often uncertain
formula - ar - ill times 100
divided by ill plus well

132
Q

what are the applications and uses of prevalence data

A

uses - Describing the burden of a health problem in a population

Estimating the frequency of an exposure

Determining allocation of health resources such as facilities and personnel

Example of a proportion (not a rate)

the prevalence of type 2 diabetes among children age 2 to 12 equals the number of children age 2 to 12 years with type 2 diabetes divided by the total number of children within that age range

133
Q

point prevalence vs period prevalence

A

point prevalence -the prevalence measured at a particular point in time.

Number of persons ill per 1,000
/Total number in the group
period prevalence - prevalence measured over an interval of time.
Number of persons ill /
Average population

134
Q

arithmetic mean

A

is the measure of central location that is more familiar due to many desirable statistical properties

135
Q

ecologic fallacy

A

is an error that results when an association between aggregated level variables is used to draw a conclusion about the association doesn’t exist.

136
Q

response bias

A

a type of selection bias in which those who respond to a questionnaire are systematic those who don’t respond

137
Q

serial survey

A

a cross-sectional survey that is routinely conducted

138
Q

nominal data

A

unordered categories or classes gender and race and ethnicity and martial status occupation

139
Q

ordinal data

A

additional information provided by the order among categories or a stage or grade of cancer

140
Q

discrete

A

integers or counts that differ by fixing amounts with no intermediate values possible

141
Q

ratio

A
  • the values of x and y are distinct such that the values of x are not contained in y
    proportion - x is contained in y
142
Q

proportion

A

x is contained in y

143
Q

incidence density rate

A

the denominator is the time each person is observed instead of the number of people

144
Q

person time rate

A

denominator of the incidence rate is the sum of the time each person was observed

145
Q

Secondary attack rate -

A

the epidemiologist is interested in the rate of new cases occurring among contacts of known cases

146
Q

variance

A

is the average of the squared differences of the observations from the mean

epidemiology chapter 1-4 (6 decks)

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