Environmental management Flashcards
Define renewable.
If from a source that does not run out when it is used. It is also called: infinite, flow or income energy resources.
Solar, wind, geothermal…
Define non-renewable.
Is from a source that runs out when it is used. It is also called: finite, stock or capital energy resources.
Fossil fuels (oil, coal, gas,) and nuclear.
What is non-critical renewable energy?
Renewable energy resources have unlimited availability. They are ‘everlasting’ and we do not need to worry about the rate at which they are used. (e.g. Solar, tidal, wave). They are also known as flow or income resources - they yield a continuous flow of energy.
What is critical renewable energy?
Renewable energy resources that require careful management as they can be used up at a faster rate than they are being replaced (e.g. energy produces from wood, biomass and animals wastes).
What is energy security?
Energy security is having ongoing access to a reliable supply of energy sources that a country requires for its needs now and into the foreseeable future.
Why has energy consumption decreased in the UK?
Energy efficiency has generally increased. Most peoples’ homes are energy efficient (double glazing, LED light bulbs). Transport is more efficient (cars designs are modern with more effficient combustion), increase in availability that thus affordability of electric cars.
There has been a decline in UK industry due to outsourcing. For example, production of Chinese still led to the decline of the UK steel industry. Margaret Thatcher closed the UK coal industry.
How has the UK’s electricity energy mix changed?
A national mission for zero-carbon electricity system by 2030. As of 2022, renewable sources generated 41.8% of the electricity produced in the UK; around 6% of total UK energy usage.
According the WHO, how many people died from air pollution in 2016?
WHO estimates in 2016, 7 million people died from air pollution (12% of global deaths).
Pollution
The introduction of substances (incl. light and noise) into the natural environment that cause adverse change and which damage the natural environment.
Point source pollution
Occurs when the pollutant is issued at one point (e.g. a pipe pouring untreated sewage into a river).
What is non-point source pollution?
Non-point source pollution emanates from an area, e.g. exhaust emissions from all the vehicles in a city.
What is incidental pollution?
Incidental pollution is a one off event, e.g. the Chernobyl radiation leak or the Exxon Valdez oil spill.
What were the UK’s GHG emissions for 2023?
According to the National Office for Statistics, UK greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions on a residence basis were estimated to be 114 million tonnes.
The UK is committed to reaching net zero by 2050.
Reasons why the UK isn’t sustainable.
According to the United Nations report from 2022, there are gaps or inadequate performance from the UK on 64% of the SDG targets.
Their research found that in 2019, toxic air contributed to the premature deaths of around 4,000 Londoners. This includes deaths from all causes, including respiratory, lung cancer and cardiovascular diseases. Like smoking, air pollution is seen as a contributory factor, so is rarely listed on death certificates.
The data show that since 1970 UK species have declined by about 19% on average, and nearly 1 in 6 species (16.1%) are now threatened with extinction.
Scientists estimate that due to human activity, the UK has lost around half of its biodiversity
Examples of land pollution
The waste generated from mining, including tailings (the residual waste after ore extraction), often contains hazardous substances that can seep into the soil. For instance Morocco is home to more than 200 abandoned mines, studies have shown that abandoned mine sites have led to severe soil contamination, with toxic metal concentrations exceeding safe levels for agriculture. This contamination can disrupt soil health and reduce agricultural productivity, impacting local food security. Tailing also scar the landscape, making vegetation difficult to grow.
Industry, solid waste dumped onto land or toxic-by-products leak into environment.
Energy production, leaks from pipelines; ash from coal power stations is buried - destroy environments as it is sterile. The alkaline nature of coal ash can alter soil pH. Coal ash can contaminate soil with heavy metals and other toxic substances, reducing soil fertility and making it unsuitable for agriculture. This can also affect plant growth and lead to the bioaccumulation of toxins in the food chain.
In developed urban societies, people have become more affluent and have more waste to dispose as they consume more. Domestic waste collection is usually organised by the local authority and the waste is often buried outside the urban areas in landfill sites. The rubbish in these landfill sites contains organic food waste which breaks down to produce methane. The methane escapes and contributes to air pollution as well as contributing to climate change.
A substantial portion of the New York’s waste management facilities is concentrated in low-income neighborhoods. Reports show that facilities handling up to 80% of the city’s waste are located in just a few areas, notably North Brooklyn and Southeast Queens.
How many people don’t have access safe drinking water?
800 million people. Less than 10% of the population in Central Africa Republic, Chad and Tuvalu have access to safe drinking water
What factors might cause the degradation of rural environments?
Overpopulation. Reduction in the death rate and movement through the stages of the DTM increases population. Because the benefits of economic development are usually felt first in urban areas, rising rural populations puts great pressure on the land. Attempts to produce more food for people leads to degradation as poor farming techniques are used., alongside having to house a large population.
Poor farming practices are often the result of population pressure causing people to overuse their land. Farming methods used will be unsustainable, attempts to produce crops will often stress the soil, leading to a decline in soil fertility. Many tradition farming methods rely on a period of fallow when the land is allowed to rest and essential nutrients are replaced by natural processes. In attempt to increase production, crops are grown continuously with no fallow period. This takes extra nutrients from the soil and so fertility of the soil declines. Also, the soil structure can be destroyed by overcropping and the soil is eroded by wind or water. Furthermore, constant irrigation can lead to salts building up in the soil, salinisation occurs when the water is evaporate, causing the soil to become infertile.
Deforestation leads to soil infertility but also soil instability - causing landslides in mountainous regions e.g. Nepal. Trees used for building but also a fuel source in LICs. In rural areas of LICs, fuelwood is the only source of domestic fuel. More and people mean more households, with a greater demand for fuelwood. Wood is a critical renewable resource and once its use exceeds the rate at which new trees can grow, areas become treeless. With break the force of wind and no tree roots to hold soil together, soil erosion occurs contributing to desertification in the Sahel region.
What factors may cause the degradation of urban environments?
(in MICs)
Urbanisation
Rural-urban migration in MICs and NEEs have caused rapid urban growth in the last 50 years. Unplanned developments have increased informal housing areas which lack efficient methods of waste disposal. A lack of basic amenities cause pollution in the area. Shanty towns (Kibera in Nairobi) lack electricity, people use wood or coal for fuel, causing air pollution.
Industrial development.
Industrial development: rural-migration occurs as people seek employment provided by factories that develop in the MIC cities. Although these factories contribute to economic growth, in order attract TNC that build the factories, local environment laws are not very strict. This means that air and water pollution are often a problem, degrading the urban environment around factories,
Inadequate waste management
As MIC cities have experienced rapid growth, waste disposal systems have struggled to keep up with the growth in urban areas. Because shanty towns are built by the people who live in them, there is no proper sewage system or rubbish and the area becomes quickly polluted with open sewers. Shanty towns are also often built on marshy floodplains, so rubbish and raw sewage drains into rivers, causing water pollution.
How is environmental reduced in MICs and NEE cities?
City administrations have started self-help schemes where they provide local people with the materials to improve their built environment themselves e.g. (favelas across Brazil)
Installation of clean water supplies, electricity and sanitation infrastructure in some shanty town areas where dwellers are encouraged to move to.
Improving public transport, city administrations can reduce congestion and air pollution.
(Link to settlement case studies last year)
What factor might cause the degradation of urban environments in HICs?
Ageing and derelict buildings
Most HIC cities experienced rapid growth in the past when the country has industrialised. These cities have continued to grow outwards over time and the buildings nearest to the centre have grown progressively older. It is the inner city where most buildings have degenerated, as buildings get older the structure begins to crumble, walls crack and flake and roofs begin to leak. As the inner city is often home to poorest people, their landlords do not have much of a financial incentive to improve the properties. Eventually the house becomes unfit for human habitation and it is abandoned and become derelict.
Inadequate infrastructure
The doughnut effect is the movement if urban activities from the central areas of the city where new ring roads provide excellent accessibility. Shops, offices and other urban functions have migrated to the edge. This movement was partly driven by the fact that transport infrastructure in the centre was becoming inadequate. As traffic increased, the congested roads of central areas could not cope. Traffic congestion and air pollution were the result and this contributed to the blight of inner-city areas which were already suffering dereliction. Property developers are not interested in spending money in revitalising the derelict and congested inner-city areas where the urban environment was experiencing a spiral of decline
Deindustrialisation
Due to the process of globalisation, manufacturing jobs moved from HICs to MICs, where labour costs where cheaper. Consequently, the oldest factories inner city areas close down, leading to dereliction and unemployment, adding to the degradation of old urban environments
Social segregation
Richer population move to the suburbs whilst poor are left in the inner city. Unable to improve their environment through the lack of funds.
Waste management
As people become more affluent they produce more rubbish. Trucks carrying waste in certain cases is brought to landfill sites where the poorest population with the lowest socioeconomic status live, such as the Bronx in New York City. Trucks carrying waste contribute to air pollution and landfill sites leach chemicals into groundwater, potentially polluting the city’s water supply.
Demand for energy is primarily driven by….
the size of a country’s population and its level of economic development. Growth in energy demand is particularly rapid in MICs such as China and India. MICs require large amounts of energy to support trends of economic growth, the growing middle class and heavy industrialisation.
What are physical factors affecting the supply of energy?
-Resource endowment. Deposits of fossil fuels are only found in a limited number of locations. Saudi Arabia possesses 17 percent of the world’s proven petroleum reserves. China has natural resources estimated to be worth $23 trillion with coal-rich areas in Shanxi Province. In parallel, HEP is best produced in countries that a high levels of precipitation and high relief, such as Norway. Furthermore, resource endowment allows countries to export their energy resource. Revenue generate from these exports can be use to import energy, increasing the supply of energy.
-Large power stations require flat land and geologically stable foundations. Hong Kong has a hilly terrain (75% of Hong Kong land is steeper than 15º) with land-use restrictions is an important constraint since Hong Kong has a high population and building density.
-Large HEP development requires high precipitation, major steep-sided valleys and impermeable rock. With this being said, HEP may not be suitable in climates where water flow can varies significantly. This variability can lead to fluctuations in power generation, making it unreliable during dry seasons or periods of low water flow. Similarly, Iceland, Norway and northern Russia tend to have limited sunlight, making solar power less suitable.
What are economic factors affecting the supply of energy?
-The most accessible, and cheapest, deposits of fossil fuels are exploited first; onshore deposits of fossil fuels are usually cheaper to exploit than offshore deposits.
-Location advantage plays a factor. Potential power stations sites close to major transport routes and existing electricity transmission corridors are more economically viable to build than those is very inaccessible locations.
-When energy prices rise significantly, companies tend to increase spending on exploration and development.
-FDI is often essential for the development of energy resources in LICs and LDCs.
What are political factors affecting the supply for energy?
-Countries wanting to develop nuclear electricity require permissions from the International Atomic Energy Agency.
-International agreements such as the Kyoto Protocol can have considerable influence of then energy decisions of individual countries; developed countries participating in the Kyoto Protocol’s second commitment period (2013–2020) achieved an average annual emissions reduction of 22% compared to 1990 levels.
-Potential HEP schemes on international rivers may require agreement from other countries that share the river.
Why has the use of energy use in all countries changed overtime?
-Technology development; nuclear energy has only been available since 1954, oil and gas can now be extracted from much deeper waters than in the past, renewable energy is steadily becoming more accessible and constituting larger proportion of the energy mix.
-Increasing national wealth; as average incomes increase living standards improve, which involves increasing the use of energy as more people are able to afford cars and energy intensive appliances such as washing machines.
-Changes in price; electricity production in the UK has been switching from coal to gas other the last 20 years as power stations are cheaper to run on natural gas.
-Public opinion; people today are better informed of the environmental impact of fossil fuels & their contribution to climate change. As a result, this has pressured governments into developing renewable energy sources, with the UK’s energy from renewables growing significantly over the last 10 years from 14.2% in 2015 to 42.2% of the energy mix in 2024
Describe the global energy mix.
Despite efforts to decarbonize the economy, fossil fuels still accounted for over 80% of the global energy mix in 2023.
Oil was responsible for 32% of the energy consumed around the world, followed by coal (26%) and then natural gas (23%). Renewables share of total primary energy consumption reached 14.6%, an increase of 0.4% over the previous year. Together with nuclear, they represented roughly 19% of total primary energy consumption.
What are some general facts of regions/countries regarding the energy consumption.
As of 2023…
-80% of global coal output, with significant contributions from Australia, China, India, and Indonesia.
-China remains the largest consumer of coal, accounting for 56% of the world’s total consumption.
-India’s consumption exceeded the combines total of Europe and North America.
Describe the differences in energy usage between HICs and LICs.
HICs tend to used wide range of energy sources as they are able to invest in domestic energy potential and import energy from abroad.
However, energy consumption per person in HICs is much greater than in LICs. In 2021, in the U.S., electricity consumption per capita was 12,325.52 kWh. In contrast, this was only 145kWh in Afghanistan (a LIC).
What are the advantages of oil?
Oil has a high energy content per unit of volume, making it an efficient fuel for transportation and other energy-intensive applications.
Established Infrastructure: The global infrastructure for oil extraction, refining, distribution, and utilization is well-developed, making it a reliable and accessible energy source.
Economic importance: Oil has been a important driver of economics growth for many countries. For instance, Saudi Arabia Oil Exports valued at $211.54 billion in 2023.
What are the disadvantages of oil?
Non-renewable: Oil is a non-renewable resource, meaning it is limited in supply. As reserves are depleted, extraction becomes more difficult, expensive, and environmentally damaging. According to the International energy Agency, global oil demand is still forecast to be 3.2 million barrels per day higher in 2030 than in 2023
Climate change: Oil releases a huge amount of carbon when burned - approximately a third of the world’s total carbon emissions.
Oil Spills: The extraction of offshore deposits of oil can lead can cause significant harm to the environment. For instance, in the Gulf of Mexico, the Deepwater Horizon oil spill in 2010 killed thousand of marine animals and contaminated their habitats
What are the main concerns of nuclear power?
-Power plant accidents: the radiation Chernobyl disaster in 1986 caused 28 deaths with the region not being habitable for at least 20,000 years.
-Radioactive Waste: Nuclear power plants produce radioactive waste that remains hazardous for thousands of years. No country has implemented a long-term solution to the nuclear waste problem.
-High Initial Costs: The construction of nuclear power plants requires substantial capital investment. The costs associated with ensuring safety, regulatory compliance, and decommissioning old plants are also very high. This is why the vast majority of nuclear power stations are only found in HICs
What are the advantage of nuclear energy?
-Nuclear fuel, such as uranium, has an extremely high energy density compared to fossil fuels. A small amount of nuclear fuel can produce a large amount of energy, making it very efficient in terms of resource use.
-Low Greenhouse Gas Emissions: Nuclear power plants produce minimal greenhouse gas emissions during operation. This makes nuclear energy a cleaner alternative to fossil fuels like coal, oil, and natural gas, which are major contributors to climate change.
-Reliable and Stable Energy Supply: Nuclear power plants can operate continuously for long periods (typically 18-24 months) without needing to refuel. This provides a stable and reliable source of baseload electricity, which is essential for maintaining a consistent power supply.
The use of fuelwood is the…
main cause of indoor air pollution in LICs. Indoor air pollution every year.
Explain the trend of energy consumption in HICs.
Deindustrialisation, increasing energy efficiency and relatively low population growth in HICs in a decrease in primary energy consumption in the USA, Japan and the UK.
Explain the trend of energy consumption in MICs.
MICs have been experiencing high rate of economic growth. Economic growth is usually associated with higher incomes. Full Year GDP Growth in China averaged 8.80 percent from 1992 until 2024 with annual per capita disposable income increasing from 904 yuan in 1990 41,314 yuan in 2024. A rise in disposable incomes has led to a rise in standard of living with growing middle class in MICs that now have access to cars and appliances such as washing machines, with large-scale electrification to develop transport. This has led to primary energy consumption in MICs increasing.
Explain the trend of energy consumption in HICs.
LICs tend to have growing population with fertility rates usually higher compared to MICs and HICs. Niger has population growth rate of approximately 3% per year with total energy consumption increasing 5% every year since 2008. However, although energy consumption is growing in LICs, it is still lower compared to MICs and HICs.
How can you combat environmental degradation in HIC cities?
Cooperation between government and the private sector.
(Research London Docklands)
Sustainable communities. Aim to be environmentally and economically sustainable. This aims to tackle multiple deprivation and social exclusions.
(Research Poundbury, Dorset by Duchy Estates)
Improved waste management. Introduction of recycling and composting schemes to cut down on domestic waste and landfill. Waste that is not recycled is incinerated to generate electricity.
Explain the negative impacts of biodiesel.
-Global biodiesel production and capacity have risen significantly in recent years, Several Asian countries, including Malaysia and Indonesia use palm oil as the source for their biodiesel plants. The expansion of palm oil estates in southeast Asia has led to the considerable deforestation and violation of human rights of indigenous peoples.
-The impact of turning over increasing areas of farmland to biofuels has decreased the supply of food in many countries, thereby leading to an increase in food prices. For example, according to Don Mitchell, chief economist at the World Bank, three-quarters of the 140% rose in world food prices between 2002 and 2008 was due to biofuels. As more farmland is used for biofuels, a subsequent rise in food prices will have a regressive affect on low-income households. Furthermore, producer of biofuel (i.e. U.S, UK) will need to increase food imports, negatively impacting there balance of payments.
Research by the World Land Trust, published in the Journal Science in2007, calculated that increasing production of biofuels to combat climatechange will release between two and nine times more carbon gases overhe next 30 years than fossil fuels. The report highlighted the deforestation programmes taking place to supply the world biofuel market.
Explain the benefits of biofuels.
-Using biofuels can significantly lower carbon dioxide emissions, with reductions of up to 80% in overall lifecycle emissions compared to fossil fuels. For example, biodiesel reduces carbon dioxide emissions by 74% compared to petroleum diesel. When biofuels are burned, the carbon dioxide released is offset by the carbon dioxide absorbed by plants during their growth, creating a carbon-neutral cycle.
-Biofuels have the potential to lower air pollutant emissions compared to traditional fossil fuels. Bioethanol, for example, has a higher oxygen content, which leads to more complete combustion and reduced emissions of harmful pollutants such as carbon monoxide and volatile organic compounds
-By producing biofuels domestically, countries can reduce their dependence on imported oil and strengthen their energy security. For example, in 2015, the production of 14.7 billion gallons of ethanol meant that the United States needed to import 527 million fewer barrels of crude oil to produce gasoline. Furthermore, the U.S. DOE reported that there were 5,662 jobs associated with biodiesel 2022.
Explain the benefits of wind power.
Reduced emission of greenhouses gases. In the United States, wind energy helps avoid 336 million metric tons of carbon dioxide emissions annually.
Wind energy projects create jobs in construction, maintenance, engineering, and research, particularly in rural areas1. Utility-scale wind plants across 41 states have created more than 100,000 jobs in the U.S. In parallel, community-owned wind farms empower local economic development by allowing communities to directly own and profit from wind energy projects.
According the the U.S. Department of Energy, Wind power is cost-effective.
Land-based, utility-scale wind turbines provide one of the lowest-priced energy sources available today. Furthermore, wind energy’s cost competitiveness continues to improve with advances in the science and technology of wind energy.
Explain the drawbacks of wind energy.
Unpredictable energy generation: Wind energy is highly dependent on wind availability, which can be inconsistent. This intermittency means that energy production can fluctuate, making it unreliable as a sole energy source. Backup power systems or energy storage solutions are often necessary to ensure a steady electricity supply when wind conditions are poor.
According to the BBC Science Forum Magazine, estimates reveal that approximately but estimates suggest that between 10,000 and 100,000 birds are killed by turbine blade strikes annually in the UK. Furthermore, connecting wind farms to power grids requires the building on new infrastructure, such as power lines, which may involve the destruction of the natural environment. In parallel, animal habitats may be disturbed by the the noise pollution produced by wind turbines.
Explain the benefits of geothermal energy.
Geothermal power plants emit significantly less greenhouse gases compared to fossil fuel plants. They release about 99% less carbon dioxide and 97% less sulfur compounds, contributing to cleaner air and reduced acid rain. This makes geothermal energy one of the most environmentally friendly energy technologies available.
Geothermal energy is renewable and sustainable, as it relies on the Earth’s internal heat, which is continuously replenished.
Unlike solar and wind power, which are dependent on weather conditions, geothermal energy provides a consistent and reliable source of power. Geothermal plants can operate year-round. This reliability makes geothermal an excellent option for meeting baseload energy demands. A reliable supply of geothermal energy also reduced the likelihood of price fluctuations.
Creates jobs, as of 2023, in China geothermal sector accounted for approximately 94,000 jobs.
Explain the drawbacks of geothermal energy.
Geothermal plants can only be built in specific locations with geothermal reservoirs, typically near tectonic plate boundaries or hotspots156. For instance, the majority of U.S. geothermal power plants are in California due to its proximity to an active fault zone1. This geographic limitation restricts its widespread use.
Harnessing geothermal energy is an expensive process. The typical cost of building a small one-megawatt (MW) power plant is between £1.7 million and £6.1 million. These high costs are due to the difficulty and expense of drilling deep into the earth to access geothermal reservoirs.
The construction of geothermal power plants involves drilling deep within the earth, which can cause instability underground and trigger earthquakes12. For example, a geothermal project triggered a magnitude 5.5 earthquake in South Korea in 2017
Explain the benefits of hydroelectric power.
Hydroelectric power relies on the water cycle, which is continuously replenished by precipitation, making it a renewable energy source.
The Hoover Dam in the United States generates electricity for over 1.3 million people annually by utilizing the Colorado River. The river’s flow is sustained by rainfall and snowmelt, ensuring a consistent energy supply.
Unlike fossil fuel-based power plants, hydroelectric plants produce minimal greenhouse gases during operation.
In certain climates with high level of precipitation, Hydroelectric plants can provide a stable and predictable energy output, especially in regions with consistent water flow. Norway generates over 90% of its electricity from hydropower, ensuring a reliable energy supply for its population and industries, even during harsh winters.
Hydroelectric dams can regulate water flow, reducing the risk of floods and ensuring water availability during dry seasons. The Three Gorges Dam in China not only generates electricity but also helps control flooding along the Yangtze River, protecting millions of people downstream.
Hydroelectric plants have long lifespans (50–100 years) and low operating costs once constructed. The Grand Coulee Dam in the USA, built in the 1940s, continues to operate efficiently, providing power at a low cost to the Pacific Northwest.
What are the drawbacks of HEP.
Dams and reservoirs can disrupt local ecosystems, affecting fish populations, water quality, and biodiversity. he construction of the Three Gorges Dam in China led to the displacement of aquatic species and altered the natural flow of the Yangtze River, threatening the survival of endangered species like the Chinese sturgeon.
Large hydroelectric projects often require the flooding of vast areas, forcing people to relocate and causing the loss of homes, farmland, and cultural heritage. The construction of the Sardar Sarovar Dam in India displaced over 200,000 people, leading to protests and long-term social and economic challenges for affected communities.
Construction of Three Gorges Dam was US31.765 billion. With this being said, the use of HEP may not be an economically viable option for LICs.
(still need to do tidal and solar, maybe buff up nuclear)
What are the environmental impacts of energy use at a global scale.
According to the UN, Fossil fuels – coal, oil and gas – are by far the largest contributor to global climate change, accounting for over 75 per cent of global greenhouse gas emissions and nearly 90 per cent of all carbon dioxide emissions.
An increase the the concentration of global greenhouse emissions. Greenhouse gases trap heat radiated by the earth, stopping it from escaping into scape and so heating the atmosphere. This has led to the enhanced greenhouse has effect, with an increase in global average temperatures…
Supply of energy in a country is determined by…
the availability of energy resources within a country, its ability to harness those energy resources and its ability to purchases those energy resources from abroad.
Demand for energy is mostly influenced by….
the size of a country’s population and its level of economic development.
Explain how sustainability will effect the supply of energy in the long-term.
Sustainability in terms of energy requires that we are able to meet are energy needs without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their needs. It also requires that we do not cause irreversible damage to the natural environment. Investing in renewable will diversify the energy mix of countries, increasing their energy security whilst decreasing their dependence on fossil fuels. In parallel, investing in renewables will reduce greenhouse gas emissions and therefore the negative impacts of anthropogenic climate change. If the frequency of natural hazards are reduced (i.e. droughts, flooding, hurricanes), the ability of countries to harness energy will improve, increasing their supply of energy.
Explain how level of development effects the demand and supply of energy.
HICs use more energy than MICs and LICs. This is people in HICs have a higher disposable incomes as well a a greater standards of living. Consequently, people in HICs can afford high levels of energy use e.g. the use of private cars, air conditioning and central heating. Commercial agriculture and the manufacturing industry both use high level of energy, increasing energy use in HICs and NICs. These countries have the technology to exploit their domestic resources and can also afford to import energy resource, increasing the supply of energy.
NICs such as China, Brazil and Mexico have a medium but rapidly growing energy use.
LICs, especially SSAs have a minimal energy use.
Most energy resources require the investment of large amounts of money before they can be used. Finding and developing oil fields is costly & power stations are expensive to build. Also, infrastructure needed to transport energy from it point of production to its point of use is also expensive to development.
Explain how world energy prices effects the demand for energy.
World prices for energy vary and because demand for energy has been growing faster than supply, energy prices have generally increased over time. In particular, the in first two weeks after the Russian invasion of Ukraine, the prices of oil, coal and gas went up by around 40%, 130% and 180% respectively
Explain how energy effects the demand and supply for energy.
Energy policies implemented by the government can decrease demand to match the limited supply of energy. Reducing demand for energy is achieved through policies focusing on energy conservation - using more energy more carefully and lest wastefully. For example, the UK passed legislation that banned the use of filament light bulbs, meaning that people had to use energy-saving light bulbs, cutting their energy use. Similarly, in the UK grants are available to people who make their homes more energy efficient, e.g. using loft insulation and cavity wall insulation.
Secondly, energy policies can ensure that energy supplies are efficient to match demand. The UK’s government for net zero target for 2050 has led to the percentage of the UK’s energy from renewables has grown significantly over the last 10 years from 14.2% in 2015 to 42.2% in 2024. This has diversified the UK’s energy mix, decreasing the need to import energy.
To provide consistent economic growth…
a country’s energy supply must be readily available, affordable and be able to overcome potential shortages.
Explain the general trend in energy consumption
World energy consumption has been increasing rapidly.
In the 1990s the USA only had 5% of the world’s population but it consumed 25% of the world’s energy. By 2007, however, MICs and NICs were consuming as much energy as HICs and it is predicted that their energy use will continue to grow. This is partly due to the energy conservation measures introduced in many HICs but most due to population growth and rapid economic development in MICs/NICs.
As China and India’s economies continue to grow, their combined energy demand will rise to 30% of total world energy consumption by 2035.
What are the main points for the changes in the use of different energy sources over the years?
-Fossil fuels (oil, coal and gas) dominate world energy consumption and are expected to continue to do so.
-Oil is the most important of fossil fuels as it can be moved cheaply by ship and pipeline and it is the only practical fuel for transport.
-The use of coal is expected to grow more rapidly than any other energy source in the next 20 years. The world has huge coals reserves and modern strip mining techniques make it relatively cheap to extract.
-Use of renewables is increasing, mostly in HICs who can afford expensive technology associated with schemes such as HEP power stations and offshore wind farms. However, the is an increase in small-scale appropriate technology renewable energy schemes such as micro-hydro plants in LICs.
What are the trends is the consumption of crude oil
In 2023, global oil product consumption grew by 2.4%, slower than in 2022 but twice as fast as the 2010-2019 period. The International Energy Agency (IEA) forecasts that global oil demand will level off near 106 million barrels per day towards the end of this decade. This can be explained by the concept of global peak oil production. Although oil production has increased, there will eventually be a decline in the production due to reserves running out, leading to a rapid rises in the price of oil. This is turn will lead the exploitation of more “difficult” reserves, so the decline in oil production will become less steep and a tail of production could occur for many years, but at a lower level than peak production.
What are the trends in the consumption of natural gas?
Natural gas is a major source of energy, accounting for approximately 25% of the world’s energy consumption.
The United States remains the largest consumer of natural gas globally, accounting for 22.4% of global consumption in 2022
The development of fracking technology has led to a rapid increase in natural gas production in the USA. The US fracking revolution has caused natural gas prices to drop 47 percent compared to what the price would have been prior to the fracking revolution in 2013.
What are the trends in the consumption of coal?
Coal is the second-most used energy source after oil.
USA, Russia, China and Australia hold 60% of the world’s coal reserves. However, coal is a dirty fuel (high in sulphur content) and can be difficult to mine, so its use is declining in HICs; Coal power provided almost 40% of UK generation in 2012, shrinking to 2% by 2019, and finally falling to zero by October 2024.
However, coal is the fuel of choice more many MICs, especially in China where it supplies almost two-thirds of the primary energy mix.
What are the trend in the consumption of wind power?
The use of wind power has decreased dramatically over the past 15 years:
-The cost of wind energy has fallen significantly, making it increasingly competitive with fossil fuels. Between 2010 and 2020, the global weighted-average levelised cost of electricity (LCOE) for onshore wind decreased by 56%.
-Growing awareness of climate change has increased demand for clean, sustainable energy sources like wind power.
-Wind turbine technology has improved substantially, with larger turbines and longer blades increasing energy capture. Modern turbines can now generate usable amounts of electricity over 90% of the time.
However, the growth of wind power in the UK has been slow, partly due to the objections of local people and environmentalists.
What are the negative impacts of using fuelwood?
In patriarchal societies, wood gathering if often seen as a job for women and girls. Girls are often withdrawn from school to engage in this activity, severely affecting their education.
Burning would in poorly ventilated homes can lead to respiratory disease, significantly reducing the life expectancy in these countries.
In Burkina Faso and other countries of the Sahel, population pressure means that increasing amount of woodland are being destroyed for fuelwood. This leads to wind erosion of fertile topsoil during the dry season. Once the topsoil is removed, crops struggle to grow and people with have to move away. Consequently, the high demand reliance on fuelwood in LICs has contributed towards desertification.
Suggest how the use of fuelwood can be made more sustainable in LICs.
Ripple Africa is a NGO that makes fuel-efficient wood-burning clay stoves. The clay stoves use one-third of the wood of open fires, reducing annual household usage from 150 to 40 small trees a year. Secondly, they produce less smoke, reducing the negative impacts associated with air pollution. Ripple Africa is already making 20000 stove per year, saving approximately 1.6 million trees annually.
What are the trends in the consumption of biofuel?
The global production of biofuels has been rising rapidly.
The use of biofuels have increased due to growing environmental concerns over fossil fuels and the impacts of climate change. Biofuels, such as ethanol and biodiesel, are seen as a way to reduce greenhouse gas emissions compared to fossil fuels. They are derived from renewable sources like plants, which absorb CO₂ during growth, potentially creating a more sustainable energy cycle. Biofuels burn cleaner than traditional fossil fuels, reducing air pollutants like particulate matter and sulfur oxides.
The United States has heavily invested in corn-based ethanol production to reduce dependence on imported oil. The Renewable Fuel Standard (RFS) requires a certain volume of renewable fuel to be blended into transportation fuels. By producing biofuels domestically, countries can reduce their reliance on volatile global oil markets and enhance energy security.
In HICs, food supplies are secure and land is available to produce biofuels.
Give an example of an oil spill.
On April 20, 2010, the oil drilling rig Deepwater Horizon, operating in the Macondo Prospect in the Gulf of Mexico, exploded and sank. The spill killed thousands of marine mammals and sea turtles, and contaminated their habitats
What are the advantage of coal?
The International Energy Agency (IEA) reports that coal remains one of the cheapest energy sources. Coal is a cost-effective fuel for electricity generation, making it a preferred choice for developing countries with limited energy budgets.
Coal-fired power plants provide base-load power, meaning they can operate continuously and reliably, unlike intermittent renewable sources like solar and wind, which depend on weather conditions.
The coal industry is labour-intensive, allowing developing countries to utilise their large populations. in India, the sector supports over 4 million jobs directly and indirectly.
Coal is a critical raw material for industries such as steel production. In 2022, 70% of global steel production relied on coal-derived coke, according to the World Steel Association. As a result, Coal is essential for heavy industries, making it indispensable for economic development and infrastructure projects.
What are the drawbacks of coal?
Burning coal releases pollutants such as sulphur dioxide (SO₂), nitrogen oxides (NOₓ), and particulate matter (PM), contributing to air pollution. In China, coal-fired power plants are a major source of air pollution. Cities like Beijing and Shanghai frequently experience hazardous smog levels, with PM2.5 concentrations exceeding 500 µg/m³ (WHO safe limit is 25 µg/m³). Furthermore, in India, coal-fired power plants are linked to over 100,000 premature deaths annually due to air pollution-related illnesses, according to a study by Greenpeace.
Burning coal and oil releases sulphur dioxide. This causes acid rain which damages forests and threatens freshwater wildlife.
The U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA) reports that coal combustion accounts for 20% of global CO₂ emissions, making it one of the largest contributors to climate change.
In Australia, open-pit coal mining in the Hunter Valley has led to deforestation, soil erosion, and the destruction of wildlife habitats.
Using an example, explain the impacts of energy production on the local areas,
The extraction of tar sands in Alberta, Canada requires clearing vast areas of boreal forest, which is a critical habitat for wildlife and a major carbon sink. y 2020, tar sands mining had disturbed over 895 square kilometres of land in Alberta, according to the Alberta Energy Regulator. Loss of biodiversity, disruption of ecosystems, and displacement of species such as caribou, whose populations have declined by over 60% in some areas.
Tar sands operations require large amounts of water, which is often drawn from local rivers and aquifers. The process also produces toxic wastewater stored in tailings ponds.
The Athabasca River, a major water source in the region, has shown elevated levels of pollutants and heavy metals downstream from tar sands operations. This harmed aquatic ecosystems as well has contaminating drinking water for local communities, especially indigenous populations.
Using an example, explain the impacts of transporting energy.
In March 1989, the Exxon Valdez oil tanker ran aground in Prince William Sound on the coast of Alaska, 10.8 million gallon of oil was released, contaminating 1700km of the coastline, making it a regional scale disaster. As many as 2,800 sea otters, 300 harbour seals, 900 bald eagles and 250,000 seabirds died in the days following the disaster.
Electricity transmission lines are seen by many as a cause of visual pollution. The building of new wind farms in Wales after 2010 meant that electricity pylons needed to built through rural areas in north Shropshire.
Explain the main causes of air pollution.
Deforestation often involves the burning of trees. On a small scale, the smoke quickly dissipates and does not serious impact. However, when this is done on a large scale, it can cause air pollution across several countries. For instance, in 2015 the burning of rainforests in south-east Asia has led to serious air pollution across the whole region. This led to the South-east Asian Haze may have caused around 100,000 deaths according to a study in 2016 conducted by Harvard and Columbia University.
Heavy industry often produced a range of atmospheric pollutants. Iron, steel and oil refining factories are some of the worst causes of air pollution as they operate for a long period of time, producing sustained air pollution. Industrial accidents can contaminate large areas with extremely toxic materials. An explosion at the Union Carbide chemical factory in Bhopal, India, 1984 released methyl isocyanate gas into the surrounding city. The long-term death toll due to the gas is around 20,000, with many permanently disabled.
Traffic congestion as vehicles produce exhaust fumes when they are caught in traffic jams. The pollution is often worst in MICs where vehicles are poorly maintained and emitting for sulphur and nitrogen dioxide due to incomplete combustion. However, congestion is still an issue in HICs; traffic congestion causing 14% of PM2.5 emissions in NYC.
Explain the main causes of water pollution.
Water pollution by agriculture is related to the increasing use of chemicals in farming. These chemicals are washed down through the soil (leaching) and often drain into rivers and streams. The increase in nitrates from fertilisers leads to the growth of algae. When algae die, they decompose and use up oxygen in the water (eutrophication), this can suffocate fish and other marine organisms as less oxygen is available.
In Northern Gulf of Mexico, off the coast of Louisiana and Texas. Nutrient runoff from the Mississippi River, primarily from agricultural activities (fertilizers and animal waste). One of the largest hypoxic zones in the world, where oxygen levels are too low to support most marine life. The dead zone can cover up to 6,000-7,000 square miles during peak periods.
Industry: Liquid wastes from industry are simply dumped into the sea or into nearby rivers. In the papermaking industry mainly in China and the U.S., chemicals used to turn wood into wood pulp are extremely toxic and can kill most wildlife released into local rivers without being treated and made safe first.
Energy production: The extraction of offshore deposits of oil can lead can cause significant harm to the environment. For instance, in the Gulf of Mexico, the Deepwater Horizon oil spill in 2010 killed thousand of marine animals and contaminated their habitats.
MICs and LICs may not have efficient rubbish collection systems. Consequently, rubbish in dumped into the nearest river; 1.2 billion pounds of plastics are still dumped in the Ganges river annually. Also, Waste flows primarily from high-income nations to low- and middle-income countries.
What is water in demand?
(hint three reasons)
Agriculture: in many parts of the world, rainfall is low and farmers need to irrigate fields so crops can grow.
Industrial use: Industry can use huge amount of water for manufacturing (e.g. papermaking, or for cooling of power stations).
Domestic use: in HICs people use large amount of water each day for drinking, washing, flushing toilets etc. In LICs people use much less water, mostly for drinking.
What are the effects on the environment of supplying water?
Supplying water can lead to river level falling and wetland areas drying out. This can negatively impact wildlife as habits as reduced or destroyed. Also, when river levels fall, pollution becomes more concentrated and wildlife suffers as a result. In extreme cases, the draining of aquifer and lakes for water supply can have negative impacts on infrastructure. In particular, excessive groundwater extraction in Mexico City has led to the area sinking up to 20 inches per year. This has the potential to destabilise buildings, pipelines and railways,
The UK water network requires extensive pumping to move water across the country, contributing approximately 600,000 tonnes of CO2 emissions annually.
Why does the supply and demand for water vary between HICs and LICs.
Wealth: In the United States, 99% of the population has access to safely managed drinking water, yet Sub-Saharan Africa, only 39% of the population has water connected to their homes. There’s a strong correlation between GDP per capita and improved water source usage. Countries with GDP per capita over $10,000-15,000 typically have over 90% of households with improved water access.
Distribution of population: High-income countries often have more urbanized populations, making centralized water systems more feasible.
Industry: Paradoxically, low-income countries often have higher agricultural water use compared to high-income countries. This can strain available water resources for domestic use in low-income nations.
Climate: LICs that live in arid and semi-arid regions of the world there is physical water scarcity. This when when demand outstrip a region’s ability to provide the water needed by the population. In these climates, there are high temperatures and evapotranspiration rates and high and precipitation low.
LICs: Unlike HICs, LICs such as Niger, South Sudan and Angola have rapidly growing populations, putting increasing pressure on water supply.
What are physical factors that effect supply of water?
Rainfall patterns and evaporation rates greatly influence water availability. Countries with high rainfall, like those in tropical regions and temperate regions, often have water surpluses, while arid areas face deficits. The presence of aquifers and groundwater storage capacity affects water availability. Some countries have favourable geological conditions for water storage, while others do not.
Some areas use rainfall fed by rivers thousands of kilometres away. One example is the Nile River Valley in Egypt, which is fed by rainfall in the Ethiopian highlands.
What is making water scarcity more severe?
The world population is increased by about 80 million a year. This converts to an increased demand for freshwater of around 64 billion m3 per year.
Increasing affluence.
Increase in demand for the production of biofuels
Climate change is increase aridity.
Explain how physical water scarcity is a result of human activity.
The Colorado river basin in the USA once had an abundant supply of water but there has been an overextraction of water, leading to physical water scarcity downstream.
How can water supply in a country be increased?
The United Arab Emirates, Saudi Arabia, Israel, and Morocco have successfully implemented desalination to address water shortages. Ras Al Khair in Saudi Arabia is the world’s largest desalination plant, producing 1,036,000 m³/day of fresh water.
Greywater, which comes from activities like laundry, showers, and bathroom sinks, can be recycled for various purposes. The Mhondoro Safari Lodge & Villa in South Africa uses natural bacteria to clean greywater, which is then returned to the earth for irrigation. In parallel, the collection of water can be improved: in New Zealand traditional water tanks are being used more frequently in urban areas to reduce dependence on municipal water supplies during dry periods,
Demand for water can be reduced, conserving water supplies (include Jamaica hotels case stud)
What are the constraints of reducing environmental degradation in rural areas.
Ignorance: many farmers do not realise what the destructive long-term consequences of their farming methods are. Even if they do, they don’t know what changes to make. Tradition often dictates that change is fiercely resisted.
Poverty: poor subsistence farmers never have anything to sell, so they have no money, and have no way of improving their inefficient and destructive methods. poverty gives farmers little choice in what they do. They need food to feed their families and they don’t have any money to invest in newer, less damaging farming practices. They continue with the traditional ways even though they may know they will lead to long-term problems.
Continuing population pressure: more people need more food and more fuel. This leads to overuse of the soil and deforestation. NICs in stage 3 of the DTM may soon over-come this problem but countries in stage 2 (e.g. sub-Saharan Africa) have a long way to go before their population growth starts to decline.
Profit motive: the big companies that organise the destruction of virgin forestlands see a chance to make a ‘quick buck’. They put short-term profit above long-term sustainable production. In traditional farming areas, landlords often insist on high rents, keeping their tenant’s poor and preventing farming improvements.
Lack of control: governments often pass laws to reduce environmental degradation, e.g. banning logging, but it is difficult to enforce these laws in remote rural areas where illegal loggers can fell the trees and be gone before the authorities realise what is happening. Corruption often means that officials turn a blind eye to activities that are damaging the environment.
What can be done to combat environmental degradation in HIC cities.
Urban regeneration (London Docklands)
Development of sustainable communities (environmental, economic, socially sustains table), example needed.
Improved waste management, Agenda 21 initiative.
The protection of an environment at risk.
The Central Amazon Conservation Complex - project
A small-scale urban conservation project.
