Environment and Climate

Question 1

Environmental Governance Distinctiveness:
Factors

Answer 1

Importance of science/academia (“epistemic communities”).

Wide range of issues, from species protection to carbon emissions.

Non-cooperation undermines global efforts (“tragedy of the commons”).

Question 2

Theoretical Perspectives on Global Environmental Governance, Neo realism

Answer 2

Role of hegemon.

Cooperation likelihood increases if environmental issues seen as a security threat.

Question 3

Theoretical Perspectives on Global Environmental Governance; Neo-institutionalism

Answer 3

Interdependence, cross-border effects.
Cooperation maximizes gains, reduces costs.

Question 4

Theoretical Perspectives on Global Environmental Governance; Liberalism

Answer 4

Domestic pressure through civil society.

Question 5

Theoretical Perspectives on Global Environmental Governance; Constructivism

Answer 5

Multiple actors shaping normative acts.
Norms: ecological integrity, identity of a “good state.”
Environmental activists as norm entrepreneurs.

Question 6

Global Environmental Governance Origins:
Key Conferences

Answer 6

1972: Stockholm Conference on the Human Environment (UNEP established).

1992: Rio Conference on Environment and Development.

2002: Johannesburg World Summit on Sustainable Development.

2012: Rio + 20 UN Conference on Sustainable Development.

2015: Agenda 2030 (Sustainable Development Goals).

Question 7

Global Governance Characteristics

Answer 7

Increasing Participation:
1992: 20,000 participants.
2012: 50,000 participants.

Legitimacy Through Civil Society Inclusion:
Interplay between states and non-state actors.

NSA Participation Questions Legitimacy:
Debate on the legitimacy of non-state actor involvement.

Question 8

UNEP Establishment

Answer 8

Result of the 1972 Stockholm Conference.

Convened by the UN General Assembly at Sweden’s initiative.

Question 9

UNEP Structure

Answer 9

Subsidiary body to the General Assembly.
No independent membership.
Budget: ~$741 million in 2022 (95% voluntary contributions).

Question 10

UNEP Tasks

Answer 10

Capacity development for states.

Support for environmental agreements (e.g., Montreal Protocol).

Facilitate negotiations, develop international environmental law.

Support national implementation through capacity development.

Question 11

UNEP Limitations

Answer 11

Size/funding limitations.

Dependency on the General Assembly.

Lack of enforcement power.

Logistical challenges in Nairobi.

Question 12

Success: Montreal Protocol

Answer 12

“Perhaps the single most successful international agreement.”

Question 13

Montreal Protocol

Answer 13

Ozone Layer Protection:
Addressing chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs).
Ozone depletion impact on health and genes.

Universal ratification since 2009.
Reduction of CFC levels through succeeding protocols.

Question 14

Montreal Protocol Reasons for Success

Answer 14

Strong coalition led by powerful states (Toronto Group).

Legitimate epistemic communities.

Domestic pressure, hegemonic leadership, concessions to developing countries.

Question 15

Global Climate Governance Challenges (Dilemma, problem)

Answer 15

Dilemma:
Balancing ecological interests vs. short-term economic gains.

Problem:
Global temperature rise, impacts on sea levels, weather, and living conditions.

Question 16

Steps Towards Agreements

Answer 16

1988 Toronto Conference:
Demand for an international convention.
Foundation of the IPCC by UNEP and WMO.

1992 Rio Conference:
Commitment to return to 1990 emission levels.

Question 17

Global Climate Agreements

Answer 17

Kyoto Protocol (1997):
Reduction of emissions by 2012.
Exclusion of the US.

Paris Agreement (2016):
Ratified by 195 of the 198 parties.
Commitment to restrict temperature increase.
Nationally determined contributions (NDCs).
Financial assistance to developing countries.
Capacity-building framework.

Question 18

Paris Agreement Achievements

Answer 18

Legally Binding:
In contrast to Copenhagen.

Global Application:
97% of UNFCCC parties submitted NDCs.

Core Obligations with Flexibility:
Long-term perspective with reviews every 5 years.

Model Governance:
Bottom-up, hybrid model.
Involvement of sub/NSAs (cities, companies).