Env Health Text Ch 16-19 Flashcards
1
Q
Define FSMA.
A
Food Safety Modernization Act (2010). It strengthened FDA’s authority to regulate its share (80%) of the food supply. It gave the FDA expanded recall capabilities, authority to mandate HACCP systems, and enhanced oversight of food processing and imported food.
2
Q
What are DBPs?
A
Disinfection By-Products = These are formed when chlorine compounds react with organic matter. Examples = Trihalomethanes, such as chloroform and trichloroacetic acid.
3
Q
What is chlorpyrifos? Name one fact about it.
A
It is an organophosphate pesticide.
In August 2018, the EPA was ordered to ban sales of chlorpyrifos within 60 days.
4
Q
Explain how methane gas can be released from landfills.
A
Methane gas is released as a byproduct of anaerobic microbial digestion of buried organic matter.
Landfills account for ~23% of total methane emissions in the USA.
5
Q
Name 2 examples of carbamates.
A
Carbaryl and methomyl.
6
Q
What type of diseases are spread by Aedes albopictus?
A
Dengue fever, eastern equine encephalitis, West Nile virus, and chikungunya virus.
7
Q
What type of disease is spread by Anopheles?
A
Malaria.
8
Q
What is atrazine?
A
It is an herbicide.
9
Q
What is the scientific name of the Asian tiger mosquito?
A
Aedes albopictus.
10
Q
Name 3 disadvantages of using chlorine to disinfect water.
A
- Chlorination byproducts may be toxic (for this reason, other forms of disinfection, such as ozonation and pulsed UV, have been gaining popularity).
- Some microbes can survive the “safe” levels of chlorination that are currently used.
- Chlorine compounds react with organic matter to form DBPs.
11
Q
What type of diseases are spread by Aedes aegypti?
A
Yellow fever, dengue fever, chikungunya, and Zika.
12
Q
How will climate change affect the water cycle?
A
Warming global temperatures will cause increased evaporation from the oceans. This will cause increased precipitation, resulting in more water in certain places. But, mountainous regions will experience water shortages if the warmer temperatures prevent snow accumulation.
13
Q
Why is e-waste a concern? What does the USA do with its e-waste?
A
Discarded electronics can contain hazardous metals (example = CRT monitors contain lead) and chemicals (example = flame retardants in cable insulation).
The USA ships most of its e-waste to Asia and Africa.
14
Q
What percent of underground water extracted for agriculture is nonrenewable?
A
About 33%.
15
Q
Define alicyclic.
A
Both aliphatic (non-aromatic) and cyclic.
16
Q
How do organophosphates work (what is their mechanism of action)?
A
They are cholinesterase inhibitors.
17
Q
Define fossil aquifer.
A
An aquifer that is very old and is nonrechargeable.
18
Q
Define conservation tillage.
A
This is when the residue from previous crops is left on the ground (rather than tilling the soil in between crops). This practice reduces the amount of soil lost and fuel used.
19
Q
Name the 2 main routes of exposure to organophosphates.
A
Ingestion and inhalation.
20
Q
Define manure cesspit.
A
A large pool that is used to store animal manure in IFAP.
21
Q
Describe deep well injection.
A
It is a liquid waste disposal technique where liquid waste is injected deep underground, into a region that cannot readily contact any potential aquifers. The wells are typically several thousand feet deep.
22
Q
What are specialty crops?
A
Fruits, vegetables, and tree nuts. These crops receive relatively little funding from the Farm Bill.
23
Q
Define PulseNet.
A
PulseNet is run by the CDC. It uses DNA fingerprinting to track pathogens.
24
Q
What type of disease is spread by sand flies?
A
Leishmaniasis.
25
Name 4 examples of pyrethroids.
Allethrin, permethrin, fenvalerate, and resmethrin.
26
Name the main route of exposure to organochlorines.
Ingestion of contaminated food (these compounds bioaccumulate and biomagnify). The highest concentrations are found in fatty animal foods.
27
Explain point sources vs nonpoint sources.
Point source = a stationary location or fixed facility that discharges pollutants.
Nonpoint source = Diffuse pollution source without a single point of origin.
28
What are the negative health effects of organochlorines?
Acute exposure causes headaches, dizziness, etc.
Chronic exposure causes damage to certain body systems, and possibly cancer.
Also, some are endocrine disruptors (example = DDT causes birds to have thin eggshells).
29
What is methomyl?
It is a carbamate pesticide.
30
How do organochlorines work (what is their mechanism of action)?
They target the nervous system of insects.
31
Describe the Total Coliform Rule. When was it created? What is one potential problem with it?
This was created by the EPA in 1989. It requires water suppliers to create a regular coliform sampling plan, with sample sites that accurately represent water quality throughout the distribution system.
Potential problem = routinely monitored coliform bacterial counts do not reliably signal the presence of most pathogens (because pathogen distribution is heterogeneous in the system).
32
Define turbidity.
Turbidity = cloudiness or haziness of a fluid. When water is contaminated, it may show "turbidity spikes" (large, sudden increases in turbidity).
33
What is 2,4-D ?
AKA 2,4-Dichlorophenoxyacetic acid.
It is an herbicide.
34
Define flocculant, and give an example.
AKA clarifying agent. A flocculant is used to remove suspended solids from solution. Example = Calcium hypochlorite.
35
Name 4 ways in which climate change will threaten future food security.
1. Extreme weather will damage crops.
2. Weeds will benefits more than crops will.
3. Pests will expand their ranges.
4. Rising sea levels will cause salt-related damage coastal soils, river deltas, and groundwater.
36
What is chloropicrin?
It is a fumigant.
37
Define Farm Bill.
It is the primary agricultural and food policy tool for the federal government. It has provisions for farm commodity supports, land conservation, nutritional assistance programs, and much more.
38
What is azinphos-methyl?
It is an organophosphate pesticide.
39
How can mold growth be prevented?
Proper sorting, drying, and storage of food crops.
40
What are the 2 regulatory categories of pesticides, according to the US EPA? Briefly describe each one.
1. General use - "over the counter", in other words, everyday people can buy them.
2. Restricted use - tightly regulated. The businesses that use them must be registered with the appropriate state agency, and must have certified applicators.
41
What is the major route of exposure to arsenic?
By drinking groundwater that is naturally contaminated with inorganic arsenic.
42
What is pendimethalin?
It is an herbicide.
43
How do pyrethroids work (what is their mechanism of action)?
They are neurotoxins (they prevent the closure of voltage-gated sodium channels in the axon).
44
What is FFDCA? Describe it.
Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act.
This act is very broad, but one thing it does is it allows the EPA to set tolerances (limits) on the amount of pesticide residues in foods.
45
Define blackwater and graywater.
Blackwater = wastewater from toilets (likely to contain pathogens).
Graywater = wastewater from non-toilet uses (showering, washing dishes, etc).
46
What does the USDA Organic label require? What is the problem with this?
The USDA Organic label mostly establishes rules about what can **not** be used to produce the food (no synthetic fertilizers, pesticides, or GMOs, and no antibiotics or artificial growth hormones).
The Label is **not** synonymous with sustainable. Demand for organic food has fueled the rise of industrial organic farming.
47
Name one way that dioxins can be released into the environment.
Dioxins are created by the burning of things such as paint, plastics, and solvents. They are released in small amounts by municipal incinerators, but they are released in (proportionally) much greater quantities by backyard trash burning.
48
Define embodied energy, as it relates to food and food waste.
Embodied energy = all of the energy required to grow, pick, transport, process, package, store, and prepare food. When food is wasted at the consumer level, its embodied energy has tripled from its original amount.
49
How long do organophosphates persist in the environment?
Only a few days (they degrade quickly).
50
Define secondary transmission.
Secondary transmission occurs when an infectious disease spreads from person to person, rather than from a contaminated source (such as bad water). Many pathogens (and chemicals) do this, which makes it extremely difficult to tell where a disease comes from.
51
Define aflatoxin.
It is a mycotoxin found in peanuts and peanut butter. It increases the risk of liver cancer and childhood stunting.
52
What is glyphosate?
AKA Roundup. It is an herbicide.
53
Define NPDWR.
The National Primary Drinking Water Regulations are legally enforceable primary standards and treatment techniques that apply to public water systems. They were created by the US EPA.
54
Define CWA.
Clean Water Act (1972). This federal law regulates pollutant discharge into bodies of water.
55
Define dead zone.
A coastal area in which the water has reduced oxygen levels, due to the decomposition of dead extra algae (eutrophication).
56
Which federal organization oversees the safety of meat and poultry?
The USDA.
57
Which federal organization monitors and investigates foodborne illness?
The CDC (in coordination with local health departments).
58
What is metam sodium?
It is a soil fumigant.
59
Name 7 diseases carried (directly or indirectly) by rodents.
Plague, murine typhus, rat-bite fever, Weil's disease, food poisoning, rickettsialpox, and hantavirus pulmonary syndrome.
60
Name the 2 main classes of organochlorines.
1. Aromatic, DDT-type pesticides.
2. Chlorinated alicyclic pesticides.
61
What is the main "route of exposure" for dioxins.
Dioxins can bioaccumulate in animals, meaning that people are mainly exposed to dioxins in their food, NOT by breathing them in.
62
What is FQPA? Describe it.
Food Quality and Protection Act (1996). It updated FIFRA and FFDCA by mandating a single, health-based standard for all pesticides in all foods, based on "reasonable certainty of no harm". It falls under the jurisdiction of the EPA.
63
Name 2 (similar) ways that dioxins are formed.
1. Incomplete combustion of carbon-based molecules.
2. Burning of chlorine-containing materials, such as plastics, treated wood, and bleached paper.
64
How long do carbamates persist in the environment?
Only a few days (they degrade quickly).
65
Explain the differences between hazardous waste landfills vs municipal landfills.
Hazardous waste landfills are similar in design and construction, but much more strictly regulated. They only accept a certain type of waste. Some hazardous wastes must be treated or stabilized before they are accepted.
66
How do carbamates work (what is their mechanism of action)?
They are cholinesterase inhibitors. However, they have a lower affinity for cholinesterase, compared to organophosphates. Therefore, they are not as toxic to humans.
67
What is IPM? Describe it.
Integrated Pest Management. It is a comprehensive approach to pest control, which aims to reduce pests to tolerable levels while protecting the environment.
Principles of IPM:
1. Modify the environment to make it less hospitable to pests.
2. Monitor pest populations, and apply pesticides only when necessary, rather than routinely.
68
What are the 3 T's of combustion?
1. Time.
2. Temperature.
3. Turbulence (agitation of the combustible chemicals, in order to allow full oxidation to occur).
69
Name 2 environmental health-related problems that GMOs have caused.
1. Herbicide-tolerant crops have led to a huge increase in glyphosate use (a probable carcinogen). This has caused the evolution of glyphosate-resistant weeds.
2. Insecticide use has decreased, but target insects are now showing increasing resistance to Bt.
70
How do organic wastes contribute to increased leaching of heavy metals in a landfill?
When the organic wastes are broken down by microbes, they release organic acids. The resulting lower pH can cause the metals to be more soluble.
71
What is WPS? Describe it.
Worker Protection Standard. Under its WPS, the EPA regulates the occupational health of pesticide applicators.
72
Describe point-of-use treatment.
This refers to the simple techniques used to disinfect water in homes, such as filtering the water or adding bleach to storage vessels.
73
What specific modifications do GMOs have?
They have genes for herbicide tolerance, or genes that allow the plants to produce their own insecticide, or both.
74
Name one way in which construction debris can be hazardous, and what can happen if it is placed in a regular landfill.
If water is allowed to infiltrate through waste drywall (gypsum wallboard), hydrogen sulfide can form.
75
Describe postfiltration disinfection.
Postfiltration disinfection is the last step of water treatment. Typically, chlorine is used for this purpose. One advantage of chlorine is that it forms a "residual" in the pipes, which helps prevent the regrowth of microbes.
76
Name and describe the 2 tiers of waste management.
Tier 1 (preferred) - Waste stream reduciton and avoidance (recycling, etc).
Tier 2 - Proper handling and disposal of waste.
77
Name 4 reasons why our dependence on fossil fuels to produce food is concerning.
1. Fossil fuels are nonrenewable and limited.
2. As energy prices rise, food prices will also rise.
3. Burning fossil fuels exacerbates climate change, which in turn threatens future food production.
4. Burning fossil fuels contributes to air pollution, which can cause health problems.
78
Define IFAP.
Industrial food animal production = a system in which animals are raised in CAFOs. Nearly all of the meat, milk, and eggs consumed in the USA is produced in this system.
79
Name 2 different ways that pesticides can be classified.
1. Based on the type of pest they control (fungicide, herbicide, etc).
2. Based on their chemical structure.
80
Define TCDD.
2,3,7,8-tetrachloro-p-dibenzo-dioxin (aka tetra-chlorinated dioxin).
It is the dioxin of greatest public health importance.
81
What is fenvalerate?
It is a pyrethroid pesticide.
82
What is TDF and how is it used?
TDF = tire-derived fuel. It is a method of turning old tires into fuel. It is blended with coal and used as a fuel supplement.
83
What is methyl bromide?
It is a fumigant. It also depletes the ozone layer.
84
Describe the chemical structure / source of pyrethroids.
Pyrethroids are synthetic chemicals that are similar to pyrethrin, a naturally occuring compound found in some chrysanthemum flowers.
85
What is life cycle analysis?
It is a process that is used to analyze a chemical's environmental effects, starting with its creation, and going all the way through its "life cycle" to its disposal.
86
What are MRLs? Describe them.
Maximum residue limits. MRLs = the maximum levels of pesticide residue that foods can contain and still be expected not to harm human health. MRLs are established by the WHO and the UN's Food and Agricultural Organization.
87
What is acetochlor?
It is an herbicide.
88
Define GWUDI.
Ground Water Under the Direct Influence of surface water. It is defined as water beneath the surface that:
1. has a significant amount of insects, microorganisms, or large-diameter pathogens, OR
2. significantly correlates with surface water conditions (in terms of turbidity, pH, temperature, or conductivity)
89
What is the primary goal of industrial ecology?
To change the nature of our industrial systems, from linear systems, into cyclical systems. In a cyclical system, wastes would be used as fuel or as raw material for another product.
90
What does POP stand for?
Persistent organic pollutants.
91
What is the Green Revolution?
During the mid-20th century, synthetic fertilizers were introduced. They helped spur the dramatic increases in crop yields, known as the Green Revolution.
92
Define HACCPs.
Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point systems are a systematic preventative approach to food safety. The goal is to identify and address potential risks to food safety before they occur. HACCP systems are now required for meat, poultry, seafood, and juice products.
93
Name 2 problems associated with CAFOs.
1. Routine use of antibiotics, leading to resistant strains.
2. Animal waste can contain pathogens such as Salmonella, Listeria, and E. coli. There is no requirement to treat animal manure before releasing it into the environment.
94
How long do organochlorines persist in the environment?
They persist for a long time (they can bioaccumulate). This is because they are lipophilic and resistant to environmental degradation.
95
What does DDT stand for?
Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane
96
Describe mycotoxins.
They are potent, natural substances produced by molds. They can easily infest grains, seeds, and other foods during production and storage. They pose serious risks to human and animal health.
97
What is the main food safety issue regarding seafood?
It is often mislabelled. This is important, because sometimes fish that has a health advisory for pregnant women and small children (example = mercury) is mislabelled as a fish without such an advisory.
98
What are organochlorines used for today?
They are banned, except for public health emergencies (example = to prevent malaria).
99
Which federal organization oversees the safety of drinking water?
The EPA.
100
What happens when too much manure is applied to a field?
The excess will be carried off by rainfall, and it can wind up in surface waters (creating dead zones) or shallow aquifers (where people usually get their drinking water).
101
What are the 2 main goals of incineration?
1. To reduce the volume of waste that must be disposed of.
2. To reduce the hazardous characteristics of a particular waste.
102
Name 2 drugs that are used to treat organophosphate poisoning, and how they work.
1. Atropine - blocks muscarinic receptors, thus lessening the effect of the extra acetylcholine.
2. Oximes (example = pralidoxime) - help reverse the cholinesterase inhibition.
103
Define DALY.
Disability-Adjusted Life Years = a measure of overall disease burden, expressed as the number of years lost due to poor health, disability or early death. This measure combines morbidity and mortality into one metric.
104
Define BOD.
Biological Oxygen Demand = the amount of dissolved oxygen that is needed for aerobic microbes to break down organic matter in water.
BOD is measured as mg of O2 consumed per L of sample, during a 5-day, 20°C incubation period.
BOD is used to estimate the amount of organic pollutants in water.
105
How is medical waste dealt with?
First, it is either incinerated or autoclaved.
Then, it can be safely disposed of in a regular landfill.
106
Name 4 examples of organophosphates.
Chlorpyrifos, diazinon, malathion, and azinphos-methyl.
107
Define Codex Alimentarius.
It is a set of internationally-recognized standards and procedures for food safety. It is run by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the UN, and the WHO.
108
Name and describe the 2 subcategories of radioactive waste. How do we dispose of them?
1. Low-level waste - used protective clothing, and other items that contain small concentrations of radioactive elements. It is disposed of in special landfills.
2. High-level waste - spent nuclear fuel. It is temporarily stored in spent fuel pools and dry cask containers. There is currently an effort to open a permanent repository in Yucca Mountain, NV.
109
What is the most common indicator of the microbial quality of water?
The concentration of coliform bacteria.
110
Describe the problems that cockroaches can cause.
They can contaminate food, they produce a foul odor, and exposure to cockroach antigen can cause asthma.
111
Name 3 things that contribute to degradation of topsoil.
1. Plowing
2. Overgrazing
3. Excessive fertilization
112
What is carbaryl?
It is a carbamate pesticide.
113
Name 2 ways in which termites are a problem for humans.
1. They damage wooden structures.
2. They emit lots of methane.
114
What is resmethrin?
It is a pyrethroid pesticide.
115
What is permethrin?
It is a pyrethroid pesticide.
116
Describe the 2 ways in which the EPA defines hazardous waste.
1. EPA includes the materials from ~500 specific industrial waste streams.
2. EPA has developed standardized test criteria to test a chemical's ignitability, corrosiveness, reactivity, and toxicity. If a waste possesses a defined level of ANY of these, it is classified as hazardous.
117
Define impoundment.
Impoundment = dam.
118
What are pyrethroids used for today?
Household pest control.
119
What is dichloropropene?
It is a fumigant.
120
Define Bt.
A natural toxin produced by the bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis and exuded by genetically-modified Bt crops.
121
How does the EPA regulate the labeling of pesticides?
The EPA has designated 4 categories of pesticides, based on their relative toxicity. Here is how they are labeled:
Category I - "Danger"
Category II - "Warning"
Categories III and IV - "Caution"
ALL pesticides must also say "Keep out of reach of children"
122
Name the 4 main types of commonly used pesticides.
1. Organophosphates.
2. Organochlorines.
3. Carbamates.
4. Pyrethroids.
123
Name 4 diseases carried by mosquitoes.
Malaria, dengue fever, yellow fever, and several encephalitis viruses.
124
Define SDWA.
Safe Drinking Water Act (1974). This is a federal law that requires the EPA to set MCLs (Maximum Contaminant Levels) such that no adverse health effects are likely to occur, and oversee all states, localities, and water suppliers that implement the standards.
125
Describe the Endangered Species Act, and how it relates to pesticides. When was it passed?
The act was passed in 1973. It requires the EPA to ensure that the pesticides it registers will not harm endangered species.
126
Name 2 diseases carried by fleas.
Plague, and murine typhus.
127
Name the 4 main classes of biopesticides, and briefly describe and give an example of each.
1. Microbial pesticides - a microbe is the active ingredient (example = Bacillus thuringiensis aka Bt).
2. Plant-incorporated protectants (PIPs) - genetically-engineered plants that produce toxins from a different organism (example = Bt pesticidal protein).
3. Biochemical pesticides - naturally occuring substances that control pests by nontoxic mechanisms (example = insect pheromones).
4. Botanical pesticides - derived from plants.
128
What is malathion? Name one fact about it.
It is an organophosphate pesticide.
In the USA, it is the most commonly used organophosphate insecticide.
129
Name a disease carried by pigeons.
Ornithosis.
130
Define PRPs.
Prerequisite programs. They serve as a foundation for overall quality and hygiene. Examples:
Good agricultural practices (GAPs)
Good manufacturing practices (GMPs)
When these are working properly, HACCPs can further enhance risk reduction.
131
What is FIFRA? Describe it.
Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act. It requires 5 things:
1. Product registration (licensure) prior to manufacture, sale, or use.
2. Toxicity data from manufacturers.
3. Specific labeling.
4. Training of applicators.
5. Restricted handling / use of pesticides.
132
What is diazinon? Name one fact about it.
It is an organophosphate pesticide.
In the USA, it may be used for agricultural purposes, but not residential purposes.
133
Define FoodNet.
FoodNet is run by the CDC. It tracks food pathogens and provides a foundation for food safety policy and prevention efforts.
134
What is metolachlor?
It is an herbicide.
135
Define eutrophication.
Eutrophication occurs when a body of water becomes overly enriched with minerals and nutrients (usually nitrogen or phosphorous), resulting in algal blooms.
The algae may deplete the oxygen in the water, and may produce toxins, both of which can cause massive fish kills.
136
What is allethrin?
It is a pyrethroid pesticide.
137
Name 3 diseases carried by ticks (besides Lyme disease).
Rocky Mountain spotted fever, ehrlichiosis, and tularemia.
138
Which federal organization oversees the safety of seafood, dairy, and produce?
The FDA.
