Entry To Bio Flashcards
1
Q
Group of cells performing a specific function.
A
Tissues
2
Q
Group of cells and tissues with an overall function.
A
Organ
3
Q
Group of cells, tissues and organs with a specific function
A
Organ system
4
Q
One or more cells with a unique DNA information
A. unicellular
B. multicellular
A
Individual (Organism)
5
Q
Group of organisms capable of mating/interbreeding within a specific geographical area.
A
Population
6
Q
Group of organisms capable of mating/interbreeding
A
Species
7
Q
Relationship between groups of species
A
Community
8
Q
Relationship between groups of organisms and their environment
A
Ecosystem
9
Q
Sum of all living things in conjunction with the environment
A
Biosphere
10
Q
Biological Macromolecules
A
- Carbohydrates
- Lipids
- Proteins
- Nucleic Acids
11
Q
These substances are referred to as “macromolecules” or “polymers”,
since they have a large molecular size.
-cells synthesized a huge number of large molecules from a relatively small set of “building blocks”
-these building blocks are referred to as? They link together through dehydration synthesis reactions
A
Monomers
12
Q
The opposit reaction, in which polymers are broken down, is ________?
(Through the addition of water) -these reactions are mediated by enzymes, to speed them up.
A
Hydrolysis
13
Q
Most abundant organic compound in nature, which usually contains C, H, O close to the ratio of 2:1, with a general formula of (CH2O)n, and are a great source of energy.-Includes sugars and starches
A
Carbohydrates
14
Q
Three basic kinds of Corbohydrates
A
1) monosaccharides,
2) disaccharides and
3) polysaccharides
15
Q
Are simple sugars with backbones of 3-7 carbon atoms such as glucose and its isomer, fructose; they have a different molecular structure resulting in different properties
A
Monosaccharides
16
Q
-called glycosidic bond
Formed when two “monosaccharide units are bonded through dehydration synthesis.
-examples are; sucrose (table sugar) which if formed through dehydration (dehydration synthesis).
A
Disaccharides
17
Q
-formed when multiple monosaccharide units bond together, sometimes, even up to thousands of simple sugar units.
A
Polysaccharides
18
Q
-a short chain of simple sugars attached to proteins in cell membranes in animal and some plant cells, which are involved in cell recognition
A
Oligosaccharides
19
Q
Fatty or oily substances that are mostly insoluble in water (no polar components)
-still contain C,H & O2, (with a lesser concentration of O atoms) but have twice the energy of carbohydrates such as; fats and oils (triglycerides), waxes, phosholipids and steroids
A
Lipids
20
Q
Lipids molecules containing long chain fatty acid molecules
-solid at room temperature
A
Waxes
21
Q
Large and complex molecules composed of smaller molecules called amino acids
Composed of 100-200 amino acid residues
A
Proteins
22
Q
A prossess in which the nucleus divides to form two new nuclei.
A
Mitosis
23
Q
begins after a sperm fertilizes an egg.
A
Asexual reproduction
24
Q
The three (3) reasons why cells reproduce by “Mitosis”
A
1) Growth
2) Repair
3) Replacement
25
```
Interphase
Prophase
Metaphase
Anaphase
Telophase &
Cytokinesis
```
Mitosis Cycle
26
-Chromosomes are copied (it doubles in number)
-Chromosomes appear as threadlike coils (chromatin) at the start.
-the chromosome is copied and a sister chromosome (chromatids) are formed.
The change to a sister chromosome ends this phase
Interphase
27
- the cell begins to devide
- Centriols (poles) appear and begin to move to the opposite end of the cell.
- Spindle fibers form between the poles.
Prophase
28
-Chromatids (or pairs of chromosomes) attach to the spindle fibers.
Metaphase
| 2nd step in Mitosis
29
-Chromatids (pairs of chromosomes) separate and begin to move to opposit ends of the cell.
Anaphase
| 3rd step in Mitosis
30
- two new nuclei form.
| - Chromosomes appear as Chromatin (threads rather then rods).
Telophase
| 4th step in Mitosis
31
-cell membrane moves inward to create two DAUGHTER cells--each with its own "nucleus" with identical Chromosomes.
Cytokinesis
| occurs after mitosis
32
Centrioles apear
1) INTERPHASE
33
Spindle fibers form
Centromere apear
Cromatids develop
Mitosis Prophase
34
Chromatids (or pairs of chromosomes) attach to the spindle fibers.
Mitosis Metaphase
35
-Chromatids (pairs of chromosomes) separate and begin to move to opposit ends of the cell.
Mitosis Anaphase
36
- two new nuclei form.
| - Chromosomes appear as Chromatin (threads rather then rods).
Mitosis Anaphase
37
-cell membrane moves inward to create two DAUGHTER cells--each with its own "nucleus" with identical Chromosomes.
Cytokinesis
38
- cells without a true nucleus, only a region called nucleotide, a mass of a single circular chromosome
- lack major organelles, except for ribosomes, and outer boundary is made up of cell wall & Plasma membrane, typical of bacteria.
Prokaryotic cell
39
- cells with true nucleus and membrane bound organelles suspended in cytoplasm.
- nucleus is membrane-bound containing chromatin
- characteristic of multicellular and some unicellular organisms.
Eukaryotic cell
40
- plasmalemma or cell membrane, is the outer boundary of the living part of the cell.
- regulates movement of materials into and out of the cell; it is semi-permeable, which means some molecules can pass through while others can't.
Plasma membrane
41
- since it controls the movement of substances across the cell, the chemical make-up of cell may differ largely from its outer environment.
- in addition, it communicates with other cells and in plants, it is involved in the production & assembly of cellulose for plant walls (in plants)
Plasma membrane
42
- It is infused with a "mosaic" fluid made up of a (40%) phosholipid bilayer & (60%) embedded proteins.
- inside this is a hydrophobic head which is polar and exposed on both the extra-and intracellular side.
Plasma membrane
43
These components are fluid in nature and its components move and flow about easily.
Plasma membrane
44
According to their function, these proteins transport, are either receptor or recognition proteins.
-they also regulate the movement of hydrophilic molecules through the membrane.
Plasma membrane
45
The living material within the cell (this is a single cell called protoplast)
A mass of lipids, proteins, nuclei can acids & water within the cell except for the cell wall. Everything else is ________?
Where almost all chemical reactions of life occur.
Protoplasm
46
The basic structural and functional unit of life.
Cell
47
Co2 enters and O2 exits the leaf through microscopic pores called?
Stomata
48
The green color is from ________? The green pigment within Chloroplasts.
Chlorophyll
49
Chloroplasts are mainly found in the cells of the_________?
| The the interior tissue of the leaf. Each of these contain 30-40 chloroplasts.
Mesophyll
50
Chloroplasts also contain________, a dense interior fluid.
Stroma
51
Photosynthesis is a complex series of relations that can be summarized as the following equation:
6 CO2 +12 H2O + Light energy > C6H12O6 + 6 02 + 6H2O
52
Photosynthesis consists of _______(the photo part) and ________(the synthesis part)
Light reaction and Calvin cycle
53
This is the main photosynthetic pigment
Chlorophyll
54
These pigments absorb execessive light that would damage chlorophyll
Carotenoids
55
Forms sugar from CO2, using ATP and; NADPH
| begins with carbon fixation incorporating CO2 into organic molecules.
Calvin cycle
56
Chlorophyll is in the membrane of __________(connecting sacs in chloroplasts. May be stacked in columns called grana.
Thylakoids
57
What affects the rate of Photosynthisis? 4 factors
Light intensity
Supply of water
Supply of carbon dioxide
Temperature
58
Fungi that get their nutrition from living organisms
Parasitic fungi
| --Ringworm and Athlete's Foot
59
Fungi that feed off of dead organisms like dead logs.
Saprophytes
60
Saprophytes get their nutrients by using a root system called.
Hyphae
61
Absorbs blue and red light.
Chlorophyll
62
Absorbs blue and green light
Carotenoid
63
Found in Cyanobacteria
| Absorbs visible light (green & yellow)
Phycobilins
64
Found in purple and green bacteria
Absorbs infared light (700nM wavelength)
Also absorbs blue light
Bacteriochlorophyll
65
Water moves through plants by means of_______?
Capillary action
66
When water, from leaves and flower petals, evaporates.
Transpiration
67
Consists of dead hollow cells. This allows for transport of large volumes of water.
Xylem vessels
68
Similar to vessels but narrower and have tapered ends.
Tracheids
69
Carries the products of Photosynthisis (organic nutrients) from the leaves to the other parts of the plant.
Phloem
70
Is formed during cell division. It makes the outer wall of the cell and is shared by adjacent cells. It is composed of pectic compounds and protein.
Middle lamella
71
This is formed after the Middle "lamella" and consists of a sckeloton of cellulose miceofibirils embedded in gel-like matrix of pectic compounds, hemicellulose, and glycoproteins
Primary wall
72
Formed after the cell enlargement is completed, provides compression strength. It is made of cellulose, hemicellulose and longin. The secondary wall is often layered.
Secondary Wall.
73
Is formed during cell division. It makes up the outer wall of the cell and is shared by adjacent cells. It is composed of pectic compounds and protein.
Middle lamella
74
This is formed after the middle lamella and consists of a Skeleton of cellulose miceofibirils embedded in a gel-like matrix of pectic compounds, hemicellulose, and glycoproteins.
Primary wall
75
Formed after cell enlargement is completed, provides, compression strength. It is made of cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin. The secondary wall is layered.
Secondary wall
76
These are special structures that connect plant cells. They have microscopic pores or channels that connect cells together.
Plasmodesmata
77
The study of cells
| *a group of cells performing a specific function is call tissue.
Cytology
78
*a group of cells performing a specific function is call tissue.
It's the study of tissues
Histology
79
- -parts seen above ground
| - -responsible for photosynthesis, storage and transport of nutrients
Shoot system
80
- -below-ground structures
| - -anchorage and support, storage and absorption of water and minerals
Root system
81
--the formation of specialized cells that perform a specific function (cell expansion followed by cell maturation or specialization)
Cell differentiation.
82
- -groups of cells found in certain regions of plants that are undifferentiated and undergo cell division (mitosis)
- -totipotent, embryonic cell that give rise to new cells
- -with dense cytoplasm, large nuclei, small nonexistent vacuoles and cell wall with no secondary layers
Meristematic Tissue
83
- -when one cell divides, one daughter cell remains meristematic (called the initials), which serve to perpetuate the meristem, while one cell further differentiates into a specialized cell
- -responsible for increase in length and girth.
Meristematic Tissue
84
3 Types of Meristematic Tissue
- -Found at the tips of roots and shoots that are responsible for the increase in plant height (length) or primary growth
- -Include root and shoot apical meristem and buds (apical and axillary)
- -in the development of the embryonic plant, the apical meristem gives rise to three primary tissues
Apical Meristem
85
```
Primary Meristem (Meristematic)
Primary Tissue (Permanent)
```
Protoderm---Dermal Tissue (for Production)
Ground Meristem---Ground Tissue (for metabolism, support and storage)
Procambium---Vascular Tissue (Primary) (for transport of nutrients and water)
86
Two copies of genetic material, one from parernal side, one from maternal side
Diploid
87
- -single copy of genetic material
| - -results when the genetic material of a diploid cell is halved
Haploid
88
--the ordered sequence of events that extends from the time the cell is formed from a dividing parent cell until its own division.
Cell Cycle
89
- -or synthesis phase, wherein DNA replication occurs, along with metabolic activities
- -synthesis of histones
- -continuation of RNA and protein synthesis
S phase,
90
- -equatorial (equal) division undergone by somatic cells
- -produces 2 daughter cells with same quality and quantity of chromosomes as parent cell
- -accomplished by division of nucleus (karyokinesis) followed by division of the cytoplasm (cytokinesis)
Mitosis
91
- -centrioles move to opposite poles and mitotic apparatus (spindle fibers and asters begins to form
- -nucleoluc and nuclear membrane starts to disappear
- -chromatin condenses into chromosomes, becomes shorter and thicker, and moves towards cell equator
Prophase
92
- -nuclear membrane completely disappears
- -mitotic apparatus fully formed
- -chromosomes align at the cell's equator
- -spindle fibers attach to kinetochore
Metaphase
93
- -centromere of each chromosome divides
- -2 set of single-stranded chromosomes separate and move towards opposite poles of the cell
- -in animals, formation of cleavage furrow
- -in plants, formation of cell plate, which will become the middle lamella
Anaphase
94
- -daughter chromosomes reach opposit poles of the cell
- -chromosomes begin to decondence, becoming longer, thinner and less distinct
- -nucueolus reappears
- -centrioles replicate and nuclear membrane formers
- -mitotic apparatus disappears and cytokinesis ends
Telophase
95
- -basis for reproduction
- -reduction division, since resulting cells have half the genetic material as the parent
- -requires DNA replication ONCE and cell division TWICE
- -sex cell produced have enormous variation, introducing new traits to resulting offspring
Meiosis
96
- -reduction division
| - -prophase I, metaphase I, anaphase I and telophase I
Meiosis I
97
- -equational division, similar to mitosis
| - -prophase II, metaphase II, anaphase II and telophase II
Meiosis II
98
- -two copies for each chromosomes, one from each parent
- -protects against the loss of a single gene (and its protein) from mutation, sort of a "back-up"
- -homologs are not identical, they are variants, like "left" and "right"
- -chromosomes exists in homologous pairs
diploid organisms
99
- -chromosomes condense
- -mitotic apparatus forms
- -nuclear membrane disappears
- -paring of homologous chromosomes occurs
- -has five distinct substages: leptoteme, zygotene, pachytene, diplotene and diakinesis
Stages (Meiosis I)
| Prophase I
100
- -replicated chromosomes start to condense and become visible as long, slender threads
- -searching of homologous chromosomes begin
Liptonema (or leptoteme - thin threads)
101
- -chromosomes continue to thicken
- -pairing of homologous chromosomes, called synapsis, is initialized and completed
- -pair of homologs referred to as "tetrads" (4 chromatids) or "bivalents"
- -formation of synaptonemal compex begins
Zygotena (or zygotene - paired thread)
102
--a protein structure attaching homologs tightly, to maintain pairing and facilitate crossing over
Synaptic complex
103
- -characterized by further coiling of chromosomes and further development of synaptonemal complex
- -crossing over occurs at regions called Chiasmata (sing. chiasma)
Pachynema (or pachytene - thick thread)
104
--physical exchange of chromosome pieces, critical for segregation of chromosomes and introduces genetic variations
Crossing over
105
--sites along the length of the chromosomes where crossing over occurs, physical evidence of genetic recombination
Chiasmata
106
- -crossing over has taken place
| - -synaptonemal compex has largely disappeared, and as a result, the bivalent pulls apart slightly
Diplonema (or diplotene - double thread)
107
- -the synaptonemal complex has disappeared completely, although are still held at chiasmata
- -chromosomes pull farther apart
- -chiasmata move toward the end of the tetrad (called terminalization)
- -nucleolus disappears and nuclear membrane breaks down
- -spindle fibers begin to form
Diakinesis
| End of prophase I
108
- -homologs line at cell's equator, a double row of sister chromatids is formed, the chromosomes are arranged at random, allowing for variation
- -spindle fibers completely formed
Metaphase I
109
- -homologous chromosomes separate
| - -centromere of each chromosome DO NOT divide, and each pole receives as dyad (2 chromatids)
Anaphase I
110
- -dyads reach opposit poles
- -nuclear membrane my reform
- -results in haploid cells, since each daughter cell has one of the homologs (the original diploid cell had the complete homolog set)
Telophase I
111
--short interphase period, with no replication of chromosomes
Interkinesis
112
- -follows interkinesis
- -basically similar to mitosis, although starting point is different, since at the start of meiosis, the cell has the same number of chromosomes, only that they are double stranded, for meiosis II, the number of chromosomes has already been halved, but they are still double stranded
Meiosis II
113
--dyads become thicker and shorter
Prophase II
114
--centromere of dyads directed at cell's equator; centromeres divide
Metaphase II
115
--single-stranded chromosomes (monads) separate and move to opposite poles
Anaphase II
116
- -monads reach poles
- -nuclear membrane forms
- -chromosomes uncoil
- -cytokinesis gives rise to haploid cells
Telophase II
117
--is formed during cell division. It makes up the outer wall of cell and is shared by adjacent cells. It is composed of pectic compounds and protein.
Middle lamella
117
This is formed after the middle lamella and consists of a skeleton of cellulose miceofibirils embedded in a gel-like matrix of pectic compounds, hemicellulose, and glycoproteins.
Primary wall
117
Formed after cell enlargement is completed provides compression strength. It is made of cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin. The ________ wall is often layered.
Secondary wall
117
Microscopic pores or channels that connect cells together
| These are called___________.
Plasmodesmata
118
It's the process that converts solar energy into chemical energy.
Directly or Indirectly, it nourishes almost the entire living world.
Photosynthesis
119
Producers of the biosphere and sustain themselves without eating anything derived from any organism.
They are the producers of the biosphere and produce there organic molecules from CO2 and other organic molecules.
Almost all plants are photo________, using energy from sunlight to make organic material.
Autotrophs
120
These obtain their organic material from other organisms
They are the consumers of the biosphere.
Almost all _________, including humans, depend on photoautotrophs for food an O2.
Heterotrophs
124
--is formed during cell division. It makes up the outer wall of cell and is shared by adjacent cells. It is composed of pectic compounds and protein.
Middle lamella
125
This is formed after the middle lamella and consists of a skeleton of cellulose miceofibirils embedded in a gel-like matrix of pectic compounds, hemicellulose, and glycoproteins.
Primary wall
126
Formed after cell enlargement is completed provides compression strength. It is made of cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin. The ________ wall is often layered.
Secondary wall
127
Microscopic pores or channels that connect cells together
| These are called___________.
Plasmodesmata
128
--is formed during cell division. It makes up the outer wall of cell and is shared by adjacent cells. It is composed of pectic compounds and protein.
Middle lamella
129
This is formed after the middle lamella and consists of a skeleton of cellulose miceofibirils embedded in a gel-like matrix of pectic compounds, hemicellulose, and glycoproteins.
Primary wall
130
Formed after cell enlargement is completed provides compression strength. It is made of cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin. The ________ wall is often layered.
Secondary wall
131
Microscopic pores or channels that connect cells together
| These are called___________.
Plasmodesmata
