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Energy Transfer Flashcards

1
Q

what happens to energy stored within covalent bonds

A
  • can be released through hydrolysis
  • stored in carrier molecules
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2
Q

what is the pathway of energy of sunlight to energy useful for cells

A
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3
Q

what is the energy currency of cells

A

ATP (adenosine triphosphate)

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4
Q

how does ATP form energy

A
  • terminal phosphate is easily hydrolyzed
  • energy released through hydrolysis can be used to fuel cellular processes
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5
Q

what happens when ATP goes to ADP

A
  • energy released through hydrolysis can be used to fuel cellular processes
  • released phosphate may be transferred to another molecule (which can change the shape and function of that molecule)
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6
Q

where do the three stages of catabolism of food take place

A
  • stage 1 outside of the cell
  • stage 2 mostly in cytosol
  • stage 3 mitochondria
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7
Q

what happens in stage 1 of food catabolism

A
  • food is broken down into simple subunits
  • proteins to AA
  • polysaccharides to simple sugars
  • fats to fatty acids + glycerol
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8
Q

what happens in stage 2 of food catabolism

A
  • simple subunits are converted to acetyl CoA (glucose to pyruvate to acetyl CoA via glycolysis)
  • limited amounts of ATP and NADH produced
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9
Q

what happens in stage 3 of food catabolism

A
  • acetyl CoA is converted to H2O and CO2 (oxidative phosphorylation)
  • large amounts of ATP produced
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10
Q

what are the inputs and outputs of glycolysis

A
  • input
  • 2ATP
  • output
  • 2 NADH, 4 ATP, 2 pyruvate
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11
Q

what is the net result of glycolysis

A
  • 2 NADH
  • 2 ATP
  • 2 pyruvate
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12
Q

what is substrate-level phosphorylation

A

glycolysis

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13
Q

what is the NADH produced in glycolysis used for

A

used later in oxidative phosphorylation

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14
Q

what is gluconeogenesis

A
  • process to store and increase available glucose
  • builds glucose molecules from pyruvate
  • essentially the reverse of glycolysis
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15
Q

what are the 3 main steps in glycolysis

A
  1. energy investment to be recouped later
  2. cleavage of 6C sugar to 3C sugar
  3. energy generation
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16
Q

what is the input and output of gluconeogenesis

A
  • input
  • 4 ATP, 2GTP, 2 pyruvate, 2NADH, 6H2O
  • output
  • glucose, 4ADP, 2GDP, 2NAD+, 2H+
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17
Q

how is gluconeogenesis driven

A

through feedback regulation of two enzymes: phosphofructokinase and fructose 1,6-biphosphatase

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18
Q

what activates/ inhibits glycolysis and gluconeogenesis

A
  • ADP, AMP, and phosphate activate glycolysis and inhibit gluconeogenesis
  • ATP inhibits glycolysis and activates gluconeogenesis
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19
Q

what do phosphofructokinase and fructose 1,6-biphosphatase do

A
  • phosphofructokinase catalyzes the phosphorylation of fructose 6-phosphate to form fructose 1, 6-bisphosphate in step 3 of glycolysis
  • fructose 1,6-bisphosphatase removes the phosphate from fructose 1,6-bisphosphate in gluconeogenesis
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20
Q

how is glucose stored in animal cells vs plant cells

A
  • animal cells glycogen
  • plant cells starch
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21
Q

Glycogen is synthesized by _______ and broken down into glucose by ________

A
  • glycogen synthase
  • glycogen phosphorylase
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22
Q

how is glycogen synthesized

A

by glycogen synthase

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23
Q

how is glycogen broken down into glycose

A

by glycogen phosphorylase

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24
Q

what is the primary source of ATP in oxygen-limited conditions

A

glycolysis

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25
what is the primary source of ATP in anaerobic organisms
glycolysis
26
how can pyruvate be broken down, and where
- via fermentation - in the cytosol
27
what can pyruvate be broken down into
- lactate - ethanol
28
what are the inputs and outputs of fermentation in a vigorously active muscle cell
- **inputs** - pyruvate - 2NADH from glycolysis - **outputs** - lactate - 2NAD+
29
what are the inputs and outputs of fermentation in yeast
- **inputs** - pyruvate - 2NADH from glycolysis - H+ - **outputs** - ethanol - 2NAD+ - CO2
30
what is the matrix of the mitochondria
- high [ ] mixture of many enzymes - (including those needed for oxidation of pyruvate and fatty acids for the citric acid cycle)
31
what is the inner membrane of the mitochondria
- folded into many cristae - contains proteins that carry out oxidative phosphorylation - (including electron-transport chain and ATP synthase) - contains transport proteins that move select molecules in and out of the matrix
32
what is the outer membrane of the mitochondria
contains large channel-forming proteins (porins), making it permeable to all molecules 5000Da or less
33
what is the intermembrane space of the mitochondria
- contains enzymes that use ATP passing out of the matrix to phosphorylate other nucleotides - contains proteins released during apoptosis
34
how is acetyl CoA formed
- pyruvate is pumped into the mitochondrial matrix - rapidly decarboxylated into CO2, NADH, and acetyl CoA - this is done by the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex
35
what are the components of the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex
- **pyruvate dehydrogenase** removed CO2 from pyruvate - **dihydrolipoyl transacetylase** turns coenzyme A into acetyl CoA - **dihydrolipoyl dehydrogenase** turns NAD+ into NADH
36
how is fat an energy source
- fatty acids can be converted into acetyl CoA in the mitochondrial matrix - fatty acyl CoA oxidized in a cycle
37
what are the inputs and outputs of the fatty acyl CoA being oxidized
- **inputs** - fatty acyl CoA, FAD, H2O, NAD+, - **outputs** - acetyl CoA, NADH, FADH2
38
what are the other names for the citric acid cycle
- krebs cycle - tricarboxylic cycle
39
what does the citric acid cycle do
catalyzes the oxidation of carbon atoms of the acetyl groups in acetyl CoA, converting them to CO2
40
what are the inputs and outputs of the citric acid cycle
- **inputs** - 2 acetyl CoA molecules - **outputs** - 3 NADH, 1 GTP, 1 FADH2, 2 CO2
41
cells obtain most of their ATP how
via membrane-based mechanisms using energy generated from food or sunlight
42
what are the two stages in which ATP is generated
1. energy released by electron transport is used to pump protons across membrane 2. energy stores in the proton gradient is harnessed by ATP synthase to make ATP
43
what does the energy from NADH do
- NADH donates its high eng electrons to the electron transport chain - this enables the movement of H+ across the inner membrane to maintain the electrochemical gradient
44
what is the electron transport chain
- comprise over 40 proteins organized into 3 large complexes - each complex contains metal ions w incrasing affinity for electrons
45
which complexes are involved in the ETC
- NADH dehydrogenase complex - cytochrome c reductase complex - cytochrome c oxidase complex
46
what are the mobile carriers in the ETC
- ubiquinone - cytochrome c
47
what drives enzymatic activity of ATP synthase
proton gradient
48
how does ATP synthase make ATP
- acts like a motor to convert the energy of protons flowing down their electrochemical gradient to chemical-bond energy in ATP - the rotating part of the synthase spins really fast as a result of the proton gradient - this causes Pi and ADP to merge and form ATP
49
describe the structure of ATP synthase
- has a stationary head (F1 ATPase) - rotating portion (F0 rotor), which has a rotor ring and a central stalk
50
what can the F1 ATPase do
can convert ATP to ADP and Pi when not attached to the F0 rotor
51
can ATP synthase work in either directions and why
- yes! - because its dependent on the proton gradient
52
when is ATP synthase used to maintain the H+ gradient
in bacteria capable of both aerobic and anaerobic growth, under O2 limited conditions
53
what are the 2 primary stages in photosynthesis
1. **light reactions** chlorophyll captures energy from light and transfers it to produce ATP and NADH 2. **light-independent reactions** ATP and NADH are used to manufacture sugars from CO2
54
what is a photosystem
a reaction center surrounded by chlorophyll-containing antenna complexes
55
what happens when light reaches a photosystem
- light energy will excite a chlorophyll molecule in the antenna complex - it will pass from one molecule to another until it reaches the reaction center - within the reaction center, the energy will be trapped in a chlorophyll special pair - the energy trapped in the special pair will transfer electrons to an electron carrier right next to it
56
what happens when electrons are transferred to plastoquinone in photosystem II
the electrons will then be transferred to a proton pump *(cytochome b6-f complex)* to generate the electrochemical gradient needed for ATP synthesis
57
what is photosystem II used for
creating the H+ gradient to drive ATP synthase
58
what is photosystem I used for
to reduce NADP+ to NADPH
59
which electron carrier is in photosystem II
plastoquinone
60
which electron carrier is in photosystem I
ferredoxin
61
what happens once electrons are transferred to ferredoxin in photosystem I
high energy electrons will be transferred to an enzyme (FNR) to reduce NADP+ to NADPH
62
what happens in the calvin cycle
- ATP and NADPH are used in carbon fixation to produce sugar - CO2 from the atmosphere combines w ribulose to produce G3P
63
what are the inputs and outputs of the calvin cycle
- **input** - 3CO2, 9ATP, 6NADPH - **output** - 1G3P, 9ADP, 6NADP+
64
what does G3P stand for
glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate
65
what works in plants to supply it w metabolites and ATP
- mitochondria - chloroplasts
66
ATP and NADPH are used to do what
manufacture sugars in carbon fixation
67

Cell Bio (11 decks)

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