Energy Flashcards

1
Q

Define a calorie

A

heat energy needed to raise the temperature of 1g of water from 14.5 to 15.5 degrees Celsius

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2
Q

Define a joule

A

energy expended when 1 kg is moved 1m by a force of 1 newton

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3
Q

What 5 things is energy required for?

A

maintenance, activity, thermoregulation, growth, reproduction

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4
Q

What 3 things fall under “daily energy expenditure”

A

Maintenance, Activity, Thermoregulation

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5
Q

What is included in basal metabolism?

A

kidney filtration, respiration, circulation, nerve & liver function, cell maintenance

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6
Q

What are some aspects of activity?

A

standing, burrowing, locomotion, flying, fighting, playing, etc.

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7
Q

What is involved in reproduction for birds?

A

egg production and incubation

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8
Q

What is involved in reproduction for mammals?

A

gestation and lactation

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9
Q

When is a homeothermic animal as its BMR?

A

at rest (not sleeping)
In a post-absorptive state
In a thermoneutral environment
Without physical or psychological stress

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10
Q

What metabolic rates are lower than the BMR?

A

sleeping
starvation
dehydration
hibernation/torpor/hypothermia

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11
Q

True or false - a larger animal has a higher BMR per unit of body weight than a smaller animal

A

false. other way around

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12
Q

When is BMR not constant?

A

in rapidly growing animals so this would be x2 the adult BMR
in sleeping animals the metabolic rate is 7-28% lower
BMR can be either higher or lower in the winter depending on the species

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13
Q

What is a passerine bird vs a non-passerine bird? Give two examples of each.

A

passerine birds are “perching” or “songbirds”
ex. swallows, mockingbirds
Non-passerine birds - ex. penguins, emus

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14
Q

The BMR for many tropical & nocturnal birds is ______ (lower/higher) than temperate & diurnal birds

A

lower

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15
Q

The BMR for many marine birds is _______ (lower/higher) than for terrestrial species

A

higher

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16
Q

Usually, the BMR for birds is _______ (less/greater) than the BMR for mammals of the same weight

A

greater

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17
Q

When is the BMR for a bird not constant?

A

during the non-active part of the day

BMR for passerines is higher in the winter than the summer

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18
Q

True or false - the BMR for non-passerine birds changes seasonally. What bird is the exception to that rule?

A

false. it does not change seasonally.

Ptarmigan, higher in summer than in winter

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19
Q

The BMR is newly hatched birds is usually ______ (lower/higher)

A

lower

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20
Q

What is metabolizable energy?

A

body weight and composition remain constant in a healthy, non-reproducing animal/bird living in its normal environment

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21
Q

What does the equation for daily energy expenditure include?

A

BMR, activity, thermoregulation, food metabolism

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22
Q

How much more energy does standing require? What animals are exceptions to this?

A

~20%. equids b/c they lock their legs

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23
Q

What is terrestrial locomotion?

A

walking, trotting, running

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24
Q

Does energy used increase with speed?

A

Yes, linearly

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25
Q

When would an animal change its gait?

A

when the energy cost of increasing speed using the slower gait is greater than changing to a faster gait

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26
Q

true or false - the energy cost of locomotion is highest in large animals. Why?

A

false. highest in small animals because have shorter legs for shorter and more frequent strides

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27
Q

When is locomotion as part of daily energy expenditure a major energy expense?

A

migration and locomotion through snow

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28
Q

When does traveling through the snow become a lower energy cost?

A

“plowing” like bison, “bounding” which is raising legs higher so like white-tailed deer, and following a lead animal

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29
Q

What about the foot is important in energy cost of locomotion in snow?

A

Foot-loading and foot area

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30
Q

___ (big/small) feet and _____ (big/small) BW = low energy to move

A

big, small

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31
Q

How do penguins decrease their energy cost in the snow?

A

Tobogganing in soft snow and ice

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32
Q

What is terrestrial locomotion?

A

Vertical movement

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33
Q

True or false - in some cases, descending a slope may require more energy than moving the same distance horizontally

A

true

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34
Q

Define burrowing.

A

scraping soil from tunnel walls and removing scraped soil

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35
Q

What are the three benefits to burrowing even though it requires much more energy than walking?

A

access to food, protection from predators, a more stable thermal environment

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36
Q

True or false - very short flights require less energy than longer flights

A

FALSE. require more

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37
Q

What is the most energy efficient speed for surface swimmers?

A

~0.5 m/s

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38
Q

When is submerged swimming most energy efficient?

A

At faster speeds

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39
Q

What is brachiation?

A

Swinging from tree to tree using arms

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40
Q

How many times more energy is required from brachiation compared to a standing animal?

A

3x

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41
Q

An animal’s energy supply comes only from where?

A

food

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42
Q

What are four things that occur when food becomes scare/absent?

A

Switch to less desirable food source, use body fat stores, go to where food is available (migration) reduce energy requirements by reducing body temp

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43
Q

What are animals called that maintain a relatively constant core body temperature despite hide fluctuations in environmental temperature?

A

homeotherms

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44
Q

What are animals called that their body temperature is determined by heat sources outside the body?

A

poikiolotherms

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45
Q

What is the common usage of hibernation?

A

passing the winter in a resting state or an animal or plant spending the winter in a dormant state

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46
Q

What is the difference between hibernation and torpor?

A

hibernation occurs for greater than 4 days and animal must have a minimum body temperature of less than 6 degrees. torpor occurs for 24 hours or less and the animal must have a minimum body temperature of greater than 15 degrees

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47
Q

What occurs to reduce body temperature during hibernation and torpor?

A

new lower set-point for body temperature, reduced metabolic activity, reduced heart rate, reduced respiration rate

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48
Q

How do animals rewarm after hibernation or torpor?

A

Using only endogenous heat

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49
Q

Since poikilotherms cannot use endogenous heat to rewarm themselves, what will happen if they can’t?

A

Undergo hypothermia

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50
Q

How do animals adapt to maintain energy stores during hibernation?

A

some animals store food in their nest/burrow and eat during arousal periods. Some animals put on fat before entering hibernation

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51
Q

What does arousal involve?

A

increase body temp, heart rate, respiration rate and oxygen consumtion

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52
Q

Why does the anterior of the body warm faster than the posterior?

A

because of differential blood flow

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53
Q

True or false - animals will curl up to enter hibernation but may not do so when entering torpor

A

true

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54
Q

true or false - animals may be capable of uncoordinated locomotion and may eat and drink in torpor and this is also the case in hibernation

A

false. true for torpor, false for hibernation

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55
Q

How is migration defined?

A

seasonal round-trip between discrete areas not used at other times of year

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56
Q

What groups of animals migrate?

A

gregarious herbivores, solitary herbivores, solitary carnivores, social carnivores, marine mammals

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57
Q

When do animal migrate?

A

when food availability or accessibility is low so in winter, cold or dry seasons

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58
Q

What defines long distance migration?

A

one-way movement greater than 10-12 km

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59
Q

True or false - long distance migrations or mass migrations have recently been reduced or lost

A

true

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60
Q

What are two animals that no longer migrate but used to?

A

Black wildebeest and the Blesbok

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61
Q

What are two reasons why migration may be lost?

A

conservation of migrant species and securing seasonal ranges

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62
Q

What animal has the largest remaining mammal migration?

A

Blue Wildebeest

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63
Q

True or false - approximately half the world’s species of birds migrate

A

true

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64
Q

What are the types of migration?

A

Complete
Partial
Irruptive ‘almost migrations’
Altitudinal migration

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65
Q

What is complete migration?

A

almost all members of a species leave the breeding area during non-breeding season

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66
Q

In what hemisphere do most birds breed? Why don’t they normally breed in the other hemisphere?

A

Northern. Limited land masses

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67
Q

What is partial migration?

A

not all members of a species leave the breeding area during non-breeding season

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68
Q

Who may migrate and who may stay during partial migrations?

A

Juveniles and females may migrate while adults and males may stay

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69
Q

What are ‘leapfrog’ migrants?

A

birds flying over areas inhabited by non-migrating birds to avoid food competition with those birds

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70
Q

What is irruptive migration?

A

when food might be available some years and not other years

71
Q

What is an example of a bird that displays irruptive migration?

A

snowy owls young move furthest south when vole and lemming populations are low

72
Q

What is altitudinal migration?

A

moving higher or lower (for ex. on a mountain) during seasons and breeding

73
Q

When do birds usually start migrating if they migrate during the day?

A

~3 hours after sunrise

74
Q

What is the benefit to migrating during the day?

A

nocturnal navigation skills are not needed

75
Q

true or false - many birds fly at night but very rarely do they migrate at night

A

false. opposite, many birds rarely fly at night but many migrate during the night

76
Q

How do birds prepare for a non-stop flight?

A

put on 100% of normal weight as fat and then fly for 3-4 days non-stop

77
Q

How do flightless birds migrate?

A

walking and swimming

78
Q

Energy and nutrients are required in reproduction for?

A

sperm, egg, fetus, enlarged reproductive organs, milk, and heat for egg incubation

79
Q

What extra things is energy required in reproduction for?

A

territorial establishment defense & courtship
nest and burrow construction
and searching for food for young

80
Q

How much energy and protein is required for testicular growth, sperm production and ovary & oviduct growth? (NOT NUMERICAL)

A

minimal energy and protein requirements

81
Q

How much gravid uterus growth occurs during the last 40% of gestation?

A

80%

82
Q

What is the body composition of a mammalian neonate?

A

12.5% protein, 2.7% ash, 2.1% fat

83
Q

What part of the body composition of neonates greatly differs in some animal species?

A

fat

84
Q

True or false - most altricial and precocial neonates have a low fat content

A

true

85
Q

How do a few bird species display lactation?

A

through administering esophageal/crop secretions to young. Consists of sloughed cells rich in fat and protein

86
Q

What is the first milk produced in each lactation called? What does it provide to the neonate?

A

colostrum. immunoglobulins so provides passive immunity

87
Q

How may maternal immunoglobulins be passed to neonates?

A

To the fetus in utero
To the fetus in utero and colostrum
To the neonate only in colostrum as long as the intestine is permeable to Igs

88
Q

What does milk contain?

A

water, minerals, protein, fat, carbohydrates

89
Q

What animal species has very concentrated milk?

A

Seals

90
Q

What animal species has a high milk protein content

A

some seals and lagomorphs

91
Q

What animal species has a high milk fat content?

A

Seals

92
Q

What animal species has a high milk sugar content?

A

equids, black rhino, primates

93
Q

How does marsupial milk change from when neonates are confined to the pouch until they can leave the pouch?

A

More concentrated, higher fat, higher protein, less sugar, higher energy once they can leave the pouch

94
Q

Why are seals’ milk much higher in almost every nutrient?

A

need to compensate for high heat loss in teh cold environment

95
Q

What are the two main FAs in milk in general?

A

palmitic and oleic

96
Q

What is the main FA in milk from lagomorphs and elephants?

A

capric

97
Q

What kind of FA’s are dominate seal milk content?

A

long chain unsaturated FAs

98
Q

What AA is usually has the highest content in most mammalian neonates, especially carnivores?

A

Taurine

99
Q

What are the types of milk intake by neonates?

A

Hiders and followers

100
Q

What does a ‘hider’ do?

A

mother returns to hidden neonate several times a day to nurse

101
Q

What does a ‘follower’ do?

A

neonate follows the mother and nurses more frequently than hiders

102
Q

What do energy requirements for egg production depend on?

A

egg number, size, composition and laying interval

103
Q

What does the number of eggs produced vary by?

A

with age of the female and with food availability

104
Q

What does egg size vary by?

A

inversely proportional to BW (smaller birds lay larger eggs)

varies with age of female and availability of food

105
Q

What does egg composition vary by?

A

depends on stage of development of embryo at hatching

106
Q

What is an altricial species?

A

young have a delay in becoming independent and are often born naked, blind, and immobile

107
Q

What is a precocial species?

A

young show a high degree of independent activity from hatching/birth and they’re usually hatched with plumage, are sighted and mobile

108
Q

What is a nidicolous species?

A

“nest-loving” so the young remain in the nest being fed for a prolonged period of time after hatching/birth

109
Q

What is a nidifugous species?

A

“nest-fleeing” so the young leave the nest almost immediately after hatching and start searching for food

110
Q

True or false - the size of the yolk is larger in precocial than altricial species. Why?

A

true because it needs to support more development before hatching

111
Q

How long does yolk synthesis take in days?

A

4-26

112
Q

How long does albumin synthesis take in days?

A

1-2

113
Q

Is the lipid content of yolk higher or lower in precocial species than altricial?

A

higher

114
Q

How do birds meet energy requirements for egg laying?

A

Fat deposition prior to egg laying
Mobilizing body fat and proteins while laying
Increasing food intake
Changing diet to highly nutritious foods such as insects

115
Q

Why does incubation occur?

A

because heat is needed to start embryonic development in the egg and allow it to continue to develop

116
Q

What does the heat required for incubation depend on?

A

Clutch size
Insulation provided by the nest
BW of incubating adult bird
Air temperature

117
Q

What is the normal body temperature of a bird

A

40 degrees C

118
Q

What is the normal body temperature of eutherian animals (mammals)?

A

38 degrees C

119
Q

What is the normal body temperature of therian animals (marsupials)?

A

34 degrees C

120
Q

What is the normal body temperature of protherian animals (monotremes)?

A

30 degrees C

121
Q

What are behavioural homeotherms?

A

those animals that maintain a fairly constant elevated body temperatire by moving between sun and shade

122
Q

What is upper critical temperature?

A

when a homeothermic animal cannot lose sufficient body heat to maintain a stable body temperature

123
Q

What happens when the UCT is being reached?

A

body temp rises, food intake is reduced, sweating, panting

124
Q

What is lower critical temperature?

A

when a homeothermic animal loses heat to the environment faster than it is able to produce heat by increasing its metabolic rate

125
Q

What happens when the LCT is being reached?

A

metabolic rate rises, food intake may increase, shivering, body temp drops

126
Q

What is the thermoneutral zone?

A

when a homeothermic animal can maintain a stable body temperature without increasing metabolic heat production by increasing metabolic rate above maintenance levels

127
Q

What can an animal do to warm itself?

A

piloerection/feather fluffing to increase insulation, postural changes, use of shelter, stand in sun

128
Q

What can an animal do to cool itself?

A

vasodilation, bring fur & feathers close to the body to reduce insulation, postural changes, use of shade, use of water

129
Q

What is the thermal comfort zone?

A

when a homeothermic animal can maintain a stable core body temperature without increasing metabolic heat production above maintenance metabolism AND without employing any behavioural strategy to conserve or dissipate heat

130
Q

What is the equation for heat storage? What do each of the variables mean?

A
Hm +/- Qr - Qc +/- Qk - Qe.
Hm = metabolic heat
Qr = heat lost or gained by radiation
Qc = heat lost by convection
Qk = heat lost of gained by conduction
Qe = heat lost by evaporation
131
Q

How does heat exchange occur?

A

radiation, convection, conduction, evaporation

132
Q

What type of heat flow is by radiation, convection and conduction

A

sensible

133
Q

What type of heat flow is by evaporation

A

latent

134
Q

How is metabolic heat gained?

A

basal metabolism, digestion, movement, growth, gestation, lactation

135
Q

What is radiation?

A

Transfer of heat energy from a hotter to a cooler body by the passage of electromagnetic waves

136
Q

What type of heat so animals and birds radiate?

A

Infared and longwave wavelengths

137
Q

What type of heat does the sun radiate?

A

infared, visible, some UV wavelengths

138
Q

What is the electomagnetic spectrum from increasing wavelength

A

x-rays, UV, visible, infared, microwaves

139
Q

All radiation can be _____ or _______

A

absorbed or reflected

140
Q

What is convection?

A

transfer of heat energy through moving air and water

141
Q

How does wind increase heat loss?

A

via convection

142
Q

What is conduction?

A

transfer of heat energy through solids when oscillating molecules exchange energy without appreciably changing their position so basically trasnfer of heat between animals/birds and solid surfaces which they are in contact with

143
Q

What is evaporation?

A

The transfer of heat when heat energy is required as water changes from a liquid to a vapour/gas without a change in temperature

144
Q

What is the dominant means of heat loss as air temperature approaches body temperature?

A

evaporation

145
Q

What is gular fluttering?

A

what birds do instead of panting, floor of the mouth and upper esophagus

146
Q

What is the effective environmental temperature?

A

air temp + humidity or air temp + wind

147
Q

All 4 methods of heat loss/gain depend on what?

A

surface area

148
Q

How does surface area change?

A

With posture (ex. standing, laying down)

149
Q

What are an animal’s 4 thermal insulation layers?

A

Boundary layer, cover layer, tissue layer/body shell, body core

150
Q

What is the boundary layer? What is it affected by?

A

Layer of still air next to the animal’s skin. air movement.

151
Q

What is the cover layer? What is it affected by?

A

pelage or plumage and still air they trap. decreased by wind or ruffling

152
Q

What is the tissue layer/body shell? What is it affected by?

A

muscles, blood vessels, fat, and skin. affected by blood flow

153
Q

What is the body core layer?

A

visceral organs, major metabolic heat production

154
Q

What details about hair, fur, or feather or even the environment affect the cover layer?

A
  1. type of hair or feather (contour feathers vs down or guard hairs vs underfur)
  2. number of hairs/cm2 (more dense, greater insulation)
  3. length of cover (longer traps more hair)
  4. shedding and moulting
  5. Piloerection
  6. Wind
  7. Water
155
Q

True or false - the number of hair follicles are determined at birth and do not change with the growth of skin

A

true

156
Q

What is shedding and moulting in response to?

A

seasonal daylength changes, not air temp

157
Q

What are animals that are shedding or moulting at risk of?

A

heat or cold stress

158
Q

What is circulatory convection?

A

core body heat carried to the skin by the blood

159
Q

What is the upper lethal body temperature?

A

3 degrees C higher than normal core body temp

160
Q

What is the effective environmental temperature?

A

how hot it feels

161
Q

True or false - heat remains constant when and animal breathes out

A

false, there is heat loss

162
Q

What strategies help to prevent heat stress?

A

eating at night, using shade, flapping ears in elephants, going to a windy area, standing in rain or some other source of water, laying on the wet ground

163
Q

What type of heat does using shade decrease?

A

solar heat

164
Q

What does going to a windy area and elephants flapping their ears increase?

A

convective cooling

165
Q

What does standing in the rain increase?

A

evaporative cooling

166
Q

What does laying down on wet ground increase?

A

Conductive cooling

167
Q

What helps to reduce heat stress?

A

sweating, panting

168
Q

What helps to prevent cold stress?

A

increase appetite, using shelter from the wind, using shelter from the rain and snow and standing in the sun

169
Q

What does an increase in appetite increase?

A

metabolic heat

170
Q

What does using shelter from the wind decrease?

A

convective cooling

171
Q

What does using shelter from the rain and snow decrease?

A

evaporative cooling

172
Q

What does standing in the sun increase?

A

solar heat

173
Q

What is the range in body temperatures during hibernation?

A

-2.9 degrees C in the arctic ground squirrel (rodentia) to about 32.3 degrees C in the american black bear

174
Q

For bears and badgers, who don’t exactly undergo hibernation, rather htey undergo a “winter sleep” what is their minimum body temperature during this time?

A

greater than 28 degrees C