Energy Flashcards
1
Q
Define a calorie
A
heat energy needed to raise the temperature of 1g of water from 14.5 to 15.5 degrees Celsius
2
Q
Define a joule
A
energy expended when 1 kg is moved 1m by a force of 1 newton
3
Q
What 5 things is energy required for?
A
maintenance, activity, thermoregulation, growth, reproduction
4
Q
What 3 things fall under “daily energy expenditure”
A
Maintenance, Activity, Thermoregulation
5
Q
What is included in basal metabolism?
A
kidney filtration, respiration, circulation, nerve & liver function, cell maintenance
6
Q
What are some aspects of activity?
A
standing, burrowing, locomotion, flying, fighting, playing, etc.
7
Q
What is involved in reproduction for birds?
A
egg production and incubation
8
Q
What is involved in reproduction for mammals?
A
gestation and lactation
9
Q
When is a homeothermic animal as its BMR?
A
at rest (not sleeping)
In a post-absorptive state
In a thermoneutral environment
Without physical or psychological stress
10
Q
What metabolic rates are lower than the BMR?
A
sleeping
starvation
dehydration
hibernation/torpor/hypothermia
11
Q
True or false - a larger animal has a higher BMR per unit of body weight than a smaller animal
A
false. other way around
12
Q
When is BMR not constant?
A
in rapidly growing animals so this would be x2 the adult BMR
in sleeping animals the metabolic rate is 7-28% lower
BMR can be either higher or lower in the winter depending on the species
13
Q
What is a passerine bird vs a non-passerine bird? Give two examples of each.
A
passerine birds are “perching” or “songbirds”
ex. swallows, mockingbirds
Non-passerine birds - ex. penguins, emus
14
Q
The BMR for many tropical & nocturnal birds is ______ (lower/higher) than temperate & diurnal birds
A
lower
15
Q
The BMR for many marine birds is _______ (lower/higher) than for terrestrial species
A
higher
16
Q
Usually, the BMR for birds is _______ (less/greater) than the BMR for mammals of the same weight
A
greater
17
Q
When is the BMR for a bird not constant?
A
during the non-active part of the day
BMR for passerines is higher in the winter than the summer
18
Q
True or false - the BMR for non-passerine birds changes seasonally. What bird is the exception to that rule?
A
false. it does not change seasonally.
Ptarmigan, higher in summer than in winter
19
Q
The BMR is newly hatched birds is usually ______ (lower/higher)
A
lower
20
Q
What is metabolizable energy?
A
body weight and composition remain constant in a healthy, non-reproducing animal/bird living in its normal environment
21
Q
What does the equation for daily energy expenditure include?
A
BMR, activity, thermoregulation, food metabolism
22
Q
How much more energy does standing require? What animals are exceptions to this?
A
~20%. equids b/c they lock their legs
23
Q
What is terrestrial locomotion?
A
walking, trotting, running
24
Q
Does energy used increase with speed?
A
Yes, linearly
25
When would an animal change its gait?
when the energy cost of increasing speed using the slower gait is greater than changing to a faster gait
26
true or false - the energy cost of locomotion is highest in large animals. Why?
false. highest in small animals because have shorter legs for shorter and more frequent strides
27
When is locomotion as part of daily energy expenditure a major energy expense?
migration and locomotion through snow
28
When does traveling through the snow become a lower energy cost?
"plowing" like bison, "bounding" which is raising legs higher so like white-tailed deer, and following a lead animal
29
What about the foot is important in energy cost of locomotion in snow?
Foot-loading and foot area
30
___ (big/small) feet and _____ (big/small) BW = low energy to move
big, small
31
How do penguins decrease their energy cost in the snow?
Tobogganing in soft snow and ice
32
What is terrestrial locomotion?
Vertical movement
33
True or false - in some cases, descending a slope may require more energy than moving the same distance horizontally
true
34
Define burrowing.
scraping soil from tunnel walls and removing scraped soil
35
What are the three benefits to burrowing even though it requires much more energy than walking?
access to food, protection from predators, a more stable thermal environment
36
True or false - very short flights require less energy than longer flights
FALSE. require more
37
What is the most energy efficient speed for surface swimmers?
~0.5 m/s
38
When is submerged swimming most energy efficient?
At faster speeds
39
What is brachiation?
Swinging from tree to tree using arms
40
How many times more energy is required from brachiation compared to a standing animal?
3x
41
An animal's energy supply comes only from where?
food
42
What are four things that occur when food becomes scare/absent?
Switch to less desirable food source, use body fat stores, go to where food is available (migration) reduce energy requirements by reducing body temp
43
What are animals called that maintain a relatively constant core body temperature despite hide fluctuations in environmental temperature?
homeotherms
44
What are animals called that their body temperature is determined by heat sources outside the body?
poikiolotherms
45
What is the common usage of hibernation?
passing the winter in a resting state or an animal or plant spending the winter in a dormant state
46
What is the difference between hibernation and torpor?
hibernation occurs for greater than 4 days and animal must have a minimum body temperature of less than 6 degrees. torpor occurs for 24 hours or less and the animal must have a minimum body temperature of greater than 15 degrees
47
What occurs to reduce body temperature during hibernation and torpor?
new lower set-point for body temperature, reduced metabolic activity, reduced heart rate, reduced respiration rate
48
How do animals rewarm after hibernation or torpor?
Using only endogenous heat
49
Since poikilotherms cannot use endogenous heat to rewarm themselves, what will happen if they can't?
Undergo hypothermia
50
How do animals adapt to maintain energy stores during hibernation?
some animals store food in their nest/burrow and eat during arousal periods. Some animals put on fat before entering hibernation
51
What does arousal involve?
increase body temp, heart rate, respiration rate and oxygen consumtion
52
Why does the anterior of the body warm faster than the posterior?
because of differential blood flow
53
True or false - animals will curl up to enter hibernation but may not do so when entering torpor
true
54
true or false - animals may be capable of uncoordinated locomotion and may eat and drink in torpor and this is also the case in hibernation
false. true for torpor, false for hibernation
55
How is migration defined?
seasonal round-trip between discrete areas not used at other times of year
56
What groups of animals migrate?
gregarious herbivores, solitary herbivores, solitary carnivores, social carnivores, marine mammals
57
When do animal migrate?
when food availability or accessibility is low so in winter, cold or dry seasons
58
What defines long distance migration?
one-way movement greater than 10-12 km
59
True or false - long distance migrations or mass migrations have recently been reduced or lost
true
60
What are two animals that no longer migrate but used to?
Black wildebeest and the Blesbok
61
What are two reasons why migration may be lost?
conservation of migrant species and securing seasonal ranges
62
What animal has the largest remaining mammal migration?
Blue Wildebeest
63
True or false - approximately half the world's species of birds migrate
true
64
What are the types of migration?
Complete
Partial
Irruptive 'almost migrations'
Altitudinal migration
65
What is complete migration?
almost all members of a species leave the breeding area during non-breeding season
66
In what hemisphere do most birds breed? Why don't they normally breed in the other hemisphere?
Northern. Limited land masses
67
What is partial migration?
not all members of a species leave the breeding area during non-breeding season
68
Who may migrate and who may stay during partial migrations?
Juveniles and females may migrate while adults and males may stay
69
What are 'leapfrog' migrants?
birds flying over areas inhabited by non-migrating birds to avoid food competition with those birds
70
What is irruptive migration?
when food might be available some years and not other years
71
What is an example of a bird that displays irruptive migration?
snowy owls young move furthest south when vole and lemming populations are low
72
What is altitudinal migration?
moving higher or lower (for ex. on a mountain) during seasons and breeding
73
When do birds usually start migrating if they migrate during the day?
~3 hours after sunrise
74
What is the benefit to migrating during the day?
nocturnal navigation skills are not needed
75
true or false - many birds fly at night but very rarely do they migrate at night
false. opposite, many birds rarely fly at night but many migrate during the night
76
How do birds prepare for a non-stop flight?
put on 100% of normal weight as fat and then fly for 3-4 days non-stop
77
How do flightless birds migrate?
walking and swimming
78
Energy and nutrients are required in reproduction for?
sperm, egg, fetus, enlarged reproductive organs, milk, and heat for egg incubation
79
What extra things is energy required in reproduction for?
territorial establishment defense & courtship
nest and burrow construction
and searching for food for young
80
How much energy and protein is required for testicular growth, sperm production and ovary & oviduct growth? (NOT NUMERICAL)
minimal energy and protein requirements
81
How much gravid uterus growth occurs during the last 40% of gestation?
80%
82
What is the body composition of a mammalian neonate?
12.5% protein, 2.7% ash, 2.1% fat
83
What part of the body composition of neonates greatly differs in some animal species?
fat
84
True or false - most altricial and precocial neonates have a low fat content
true
85
How do a few bird species display lactation?
through administering esophageal/crop secretions to young. Consists of sloughed cells rich in fat and protein
86
What is the first milk produced in each lactation called? What does it provide to the neonate?
colostrum. immunoglobulins so provides passive immunity
87
How may maternal immunoglobulins be passed to neonates?
To the fetus in utero
To the fetus in utero and colostrum
To the neonate only in colostrum as long as the intestine is permeable to Igs
88
What does milk contain?
water, minerals, protein, fat, carbohydrates
89
What animal species has very concentrated milk?
Seals
90
What animal species has a high milk protein content
some seals and lagomorphs
91
What animal species has a high milk fat content?
Seals
92
What animal species has a high milk sugar content?
equids, black rhino, primates
93
How does marsupial milk change from when neonates are confined to the pouch until they can leave the pouch?
More concentrated, higher fat, higher protein, less sugar, higher energy once they can leave the pouch
94
Why are seals' milk much higher in almost every nutrient?
need to compensate for high heat loss in teh cold environment
95
What are the two main FAs in milk in general?
palmitic and oleic
96
What is the main FA in milk from lagomorphs and elephants?
capric
97
What kind of FA's are dominate seal milk content?
long chain unsaturated FAs
98
What AA is usually has the highest content in most mammalian neonates, especially carnivores?
Taurine
99
What are the types of milk intake by neonates?
Hiders and followers
100
What does a 'hider' do?
mother returns to hidden neonate several times a day to nurse
101
What does a 'follower' do?
neonate follows the mother and nurses more frequently than hiders
102
What do energy requirements for egg production depend on?
egg number, size, composition and laying interval
103
What does the number of eggs produced vary by?
with age of the female and with food availability
104
What does egg size vary by?
inversely proportional to BW (smaller birds lay larger eggs)
| varies with age of female and availability of food
105
What does egg composition vary by?
depends on stage of development of embryo at hatching
106
What is an altricial species?
young have a delay in becoming independent and are often born naked, blind, and immobile
107
What is a precocial species?
young show a high degree of independent activity from hatching/birth and they're usually hatched with plumage, are sighted and mobile
108
What is a nidicolous species?
"nest-loving" so the young remain in the nest being fed for a prolonged period of time after hatching/birth
109
What is a nidifugous species?
"nest-fleeing" so the young leave the nest almost immediately after hatching and start searching for food
110
True or false - the size of the yolk is larger in precocial than altricial species. Why?
true because it needs to support more development before hatching
111
How long does yolk synthesis take in days?
4-26
112
How long does albumin synthesis take in days?
1-2
113
Is the lipid content of yolk higher or lower in precocial species than altricial?
higher
114
How do birds meet energy requirements for egg laying?
Fat deposition prior to egg laying
Mobilizing body fat and proteins while laying
Increasing food intake
Changing diet to highly nutritious foods such as insects
115
Why does incubation occur?
because heat is needed to start embryonic development in the egg and allow it to continue to develop
116
What does the heat required for incubation depend on?
Clutch size
Insulation provided by the nest
BW of incubating adult bird
Air temperature
117
What is the normal body temperature of a bird
40 degrees C
118
What is the normal body temperature of eutherian animals (mammals)?
38 degrees C
119
What is the normal body temperature of therian animals (marsupials)?
34 degrees C
120
What is the normal body temperature of protherian animals (monotremes)?
30 degrees C
121
What are behavioural homeotherms?
those animals that maintain a fairly constant elevated body temperatire by moving between sun and shade
122
What is upper critical temperature?
when a homeothermic animal cannot lose sufficient body heat to maintain a stable body temperature
123
What happens when the UCT is being reached?
body temp rises, food intake is reduced, sweating, panting
124
What is lower critical temperature?
when a homeothermic animal loses heat to the environment faster than it is able to produce heat by increasing its metabolic rate
125
What happens when the LCT is being reached?
metabolic rate rises, food intake may increase, shivering, body temp drops
126
What is the thermoneutral zone?
when a homeothermic animal can maintain a stable body temperature without increasing metabolic heat production by increasing metabolic rate above maintenance levels
127
What can an animal do to warm itself?
piloerection/feather fluffing to increase insulation, postural changes, use of shelter, stand in sun
128
What can an animal do to cool itself?
vasodilation, bring fur & feathers close to the body to reduce insulation, postural changes, use of shade, use of water
129
What is the thermal comfort zone?
when a homeothermic animal can maintain a stable core body temperature without increasing metabolic heat production above maintenance metabolism AND without employing any behavioural strategy to conserve or dissipate heat
130
What is the equation for heat storage? What do each of the variables mean?
```
Hm +/- Qr - Qc +/- Qk - Qe.
Hm = metabolic heat
Qr = heat lost or gained by radiation
Qc = heat lost by convection
Qk = heat lost of gained by conduction
Qe = heat lost by evaporation
```
131
How does heat exchange occur?
radiation, convection, conduction, evaporation
132
What type of heat flow is by radiation, convection and conduction
sensible
133
What type of heat flow is by evaporation
latent
134
How is metabolic heat gained?
basal metabolism, digestion, movement, growth, gestation, lactation
135
What is radiation?
Transfer of heat energy from a hotter to a cooler body by the passage of electromagnetic waves
136
What type of heat so animals and birds radiate?
Infared and longwave wavelengths
137
What type of heat does the sun radiate?
infared, visible, some UV wavelengths
138
What is the electomagnetic spectrum from increasing wavelength
x-rays, UV, visible, infared, microwaves
139
All radiation can be _____ or _______
absorbed or reflected
140
What is convection?
transfer of heat energy through moving air and water
141
How does wind increase heat loss?
via convection
142
What is conduction?
transfer of heat energy through solids when oscillating molecules exchange energy without appreciably changing their position so basically trasnfer of heat between animals/birds and solid surfaces which they are in contact with
143
What is evaporation?
The transfer of heat when heat energy is required as water changes from a liquid to a vapour/gas without a change in temperature
144
What is the dominant means of heat loss as air temperature approaches body temperature?
evaporation
145
What is gular fluttering?
what birds do instead of panting, floor of the mouth and upper esophagus
146
What is the effective environmental temperature?
air temp + humidity or air temp + wind
147
All 4 methods of heat loss/gain depend on what?
surface area
148
How does surface area change?
With posture (ex. standing, laying down)
149
What are an animal's 4 thermal insulation layers?
Boundary layer, cover layer, tissue layer/body shell, body core
150
What is the boundary layer? What is it affected by?
Layer of still air next to the animal's skin. air movement.
151
What is the cover layer? What is it affected by?
pelage or plumage and still air they trap. decreased by wind or ruffling
152
What is the tissue layer/body shell? What is it affected by?
muscles, blood vessels, fat, and skin. affected by blood flow
153
What is the body core layer?
visceral organs, major metabolic heat production
154
What details about hair, fur, or feather or even the environment affect the cover layer?
1. type of hair or feather (contour feathers vs down or guard hairs vs underfur)
2. number of hairs/cm2 (more dense, greater insulation)
3. length of cover (longer traps more hair)
4. shedding and moulting
5. Piloerection
6. Wind
7. Water
155
True or false - the number of hair follicles are determined at birth and do not change with the growth of skin
true
156
What is shedding and moulting in response to?
seasonal daylength changes, not air temp
157
What are animals that are shedding or moulting at risk of?
heat or cold stress
158
What is circulatory convection?
core body heat carried to the skin by the blood
159
What is the upper lethal body temperature?
3 degrees C higher than normal core body temp
160
What is the effective environmental temperature?
how hot it feels
161
True or false - heat remains constant when and animal breathes out
false, there is heat loss
162
What strategies help to prevent heat stress?
eating at night, using shade, flapping ears in elephants, going to a windy area, standing in rain or some other source of water, laying on the wet ground
163
What type of heat does using shade decrease?
solar heat
164
What does going to a windy area and elephants flapping their ears increase?
convective cooling
165
What does standing in the rain increase?
evaporative cooling
166
What does laying down on wet ground increase?
Conductive cooling
167
What helps to reduce heat stress?
sweating, panting
168
What helps to prevent cold stress?
increase appetite, using shelter from the wind, using shelter from the rain and snow and standing in the sun
169
What does an increase in appetite increase?
metabolic heat
170
What does using shelter from the wind decrease?
convective cooling
171
What does using shelter from the rain and snow decrease?
evaporative cooling
172
What does standing in the sun increase?
solar heat
173
What is the range in body temperatures during hibernation?
-2.9 degrees C in the arctic ground squirrel (rodentia) to about 32.3 degrees C in the american black bear
174
For bears and badgers, who don't exactly undergo hibernation, rather htey undergo a "winter sleep" what is their minimum body temperature during this time?
greater than 28 degrees C
