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ENDURANCE Flashcards

1
Q

Marathon World Record

A
  • dropping almost 4x faster than preceding decades
  • current record = 2:01:09 Eluid Kipchoge, Berlin, 2022
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2
Q

Pillars to Sub-2 Hour Marathon Success

A
  • athlete selection (human physiology and genes)
  • course and environment
  • training (coaching, exercise physiology)
  • nutrition / hydration
  • equipment
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3
Q

Acute Effects to Aerobic Exercise - Brain

A
  • neural activity = increase or decrease
  • blood flow = no change
  • blood distribution = increase
  • metabolism = increase or decrease
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4
Q

Acute Effects to Aerobic Exercise - Lungs

A
  • ventilation and gas exchange = increase
  • blood flow = increase
  • blood distribution = increase
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5
Q

Acute Effects to Aerobic Exercise - Heart

A
  • cardiac output = increase
  • coronary blood flow = increase
  • oxygen consumption = increase
  • blood flow distribution = increase
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6
Q

Acute Effects to Aerobic Exercise - Blood Cells

A
  • haemoconcentration (red blood cell movement increase) = increase
  • oxygen content = increase
  • levels of energy substances = no change / increase
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7
Q

Acute Effects to Aerobic Exercise - Muscle Fibres

A
  • metabolism and blood flow = increase
  • oxygen extraction and consumption = increase
  • mechanical strains = increase
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8
Q

Acute Effects to Aerobic Exercise - Capillaries

A
  • arterial dilation = increase
  • capillary pressure and energy substrate exchange = increase
  • venoconstriction = increase
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9
Q

Acute Effects to Aerobic Exercise - Pancreas, Gut & Kidneys

A
  • blood flow = decrease
  • metabolism = increase
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10
Q

Acute Effects to Aerobic Exercise - Bone Marrow

A
  • blood flow = no change / increase
  • mechanical strain = increase
  • release of stem cells = increase
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11
Q

Acute Effects to Aerobic Exercise - Liver

A
  • blood flow = decrease
  • metabolism = increase
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12
Q

Acute Effects to Aerobic Exercise - Adipose Tissue

A
  • blood flow = increase / no change / decrease
  • metabolism = increase
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13
Q

Acute Effects to Aerobic Exercise - Skin

A
  • blood flow = increase / no change / decrease
  • metabolism = ?
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14
Q

Endurance Definition

A

‘The act of sustaining prolonged stressful effort’. It is limited by the capacity of the C-R system (heart, blood vessels, blood, lungs) to deliver O2 and excrete CO2 and in the ability of muscle to metabolise fuels aerobically

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15
Q

Determinants of Endurance Performance

A
  • maximum rate a subject can exercise at (VO2max)
  • the highest % of this rate of the subject can exercise at for a sustained period of time (% of VO2max)
  • economy of subject carrying out repetitive muscular actions (O2 cost per unit speed)
  • choice of energy pathways that are employed to power exercise at the optimal achievable %VO2max (i.e., anaerobic glycolysis vs oxidative phosphorylation
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16
Q

Factors Determining Pace

A
  • rate of anaerobic energy expenditure (VO2max, %of VO2max that can be sustained, anaerobic threshold)
  • economy (VO2 unit per speed)
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17
Q

Physiological Factors Determining Success in Cycling

A
  1. VO2max
  2. %VO2max
  3. choice of fuel (fat: CHO; CHO-oxid: non-oxid combustion
  4. O2 economy
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18
Q

Cycling Endurance (VO2 equation)

A
  • VO2 = Q x a-vO2 difference
  • Q (cardiac output) = HR (heart rate) x SV (stroke volume)
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19
Q

Aerobic Ability - Ball et al., 2017

A

Chris Froome:
VO2 peak = 5.91 L/min-1 (84ml/kg/min)
PPO = 525W
Gross Efficiency = 23.3% (average values 22%)

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20
Q

Factors Determining Aerobic Performance

A
  • blood volume, SNS + PNS, Mitochondrial & capillary density, respiratory capacity
  • venous return, speed of O2 use
  • max HR, max SV, Hb conc, O2 extraction of muscle
  • cardiac output, a-vO2 difference
  • genetics + training
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21
Q

VO2max Definition

A

‘the maximum rate of oxygen uptake under normal conditions of ambient temperature and pressure for a subject utilising the majority of muscle mass in a dynamic exercise activity’

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22
Q

Criteria to use VO2peak instead of VO2max

A
  • plateau in VO2 when plotted against work intensity
  • final RER >1.10
  • heart rate within 10 beats.min
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23
Q

Criteria to use VO2peak instead of VO2max

A
  • plateau in VO2 when plotted against work intensity
  • final RER >1.10
  • heart rate within 10 beats.min-1 of age predicted max
  • final lactate value of >10mmol.L-1 (this is variable)
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24
Q

VO2 max and Marathon Times - Farrell et al., 1979

A
  • VO2max is correlated with marathon times
  • time = 2.17-3.49
  • r value = 0.91
  • still large unaccounted for variations in people with same VO2max
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25
Q

Billat et al., 1994

A
  • velocity at VO2max helps determine race pace
  • athletes with the same VO2max run at different speeds so velocity at VO2max (vVO2max) is an important determinant of performance
  • time spent at VO2max (tlimvVO2max) determines performance
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26
Q

Endurance performance determinants

A
  • anaerobic metabolism also determines performance
  • lactate threshold shows strong relationship to performance
  • determining maximum lactate steady state (MLSS) can determine optimal race pace
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27
Q

Morgan et al., 1989

A
  • athletes running at same sub-max speed show differing O2 cost
  • amongst athletes of similar ability VO2max is poor indicator of performance
  • performance time is related to VO2max, AT and RE showing link between state of physical training and predicted performance time
  • appropriate increased measured training volume mostly leads to decreased performance times
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28
Q

Endurance Training Definition - ACMS Position Stand, 1998

A

‘when exercise involving large muscle groups is performed 3-5d/wk at an intensity between 40/50-80% VO2max for 20-60+ mins over several weeks it leads to functional changes that improve the rate of energy supply to demand, essential to perform endurance sports at a high level’

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29
Q

Endurance Training - Non-Cardiovascular Effects - Skeletal Muscle

A
  • oxidative phosphorylation = increase
  • muscle hypertrophy
  • calcium handling = increase
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30
Q

Endurance Training - Non-Cardiovascular Effects - Ventilation

A
  • vital capacity = increase
  • tidal volume = increase
  • max inspiratory and expiratory factor = increase
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31
Q

Endurance Training - Non-Cardiovascular Effects - Hemorrheology

A
  • blood viscosity = decrease
  • coagulability = decrease
  • oxygen transport capacity = increase
32
Q

Endurance Training - Cardiac Effects - Normal LV function

A
  • I/R protection
  • prevention of age-related diastolic dysfunction
  • physiologic hypertrophy to training
33
Q

Endurance Training - Cardiac Effects - Systolic Heart Failure

A
  • reverse LV-remodelling
  • LV ejection fraction = increase
  • improved neurohormonal activation
  • arrhythmia prevention
34
Q

Endurance Training - Cardiac Effects - Diastolic Heart Failure

A
  • prevention of diastolic function
  • improvement of LV relaxation and compliance in HFNEF
35
Q

Endurance Training - Cardiac Effects - Cardiac Values

A
  • prevention of value degeneration
  • prevention of calcification
36
Q

Endurance Training - Vascular Effects - Aorta

A
  • aortic stiffness = decrease
  • aortic compliance = increase
37
Q

Endurance Training - Vascular Effects - Conduit Vessel

A
  • endothelial vasodilation = increase
  • NO production = increase
  • oxidative stress = decrease
38
Q

Endurance Training - Vascular Effects - Resistance Vessel and Microcirculation

A
  • vasculogenesis by EPCs sensitivty to adenosine = increase
39
Q

Endurance Training - Vascular Effects - Capillary Bed

A
  • capillary vessel formation = increase
40
Q

Endurance Training - Vascular Effects - Venous Circulation

A
  • venular capillaries = increase
41
Q

Endurance Training - Vascular Effects - Pulmonary Artery

A
  • endothelial function = increase
  • pulmonary artery pressure = decrease
  • in chronic heart failure
42
Q

Endurance Training -Neurohormonal and Autonomic Effects

A
  • sympathetic tone = decrease
  • parasympathetic tone = increase
43
Q

Endurance Training -Neurohormonal and Autonomic Effects - In CHF

A
  • norepinephrine
  • angiotensin II
  • ANP, BNP
44
Q

Endurance Training -Neurohormonal and Autonomic Effects - Antiarrythmic Effects

A
  • normalisation of heart rate variability
  • shortened action potential duration
  • hyperpolarization
  • attenuated automacity
45
Q

Systemic Effects of Endurance Training - Skeletal Muscle

A
  • hypertrophy
  • hyperplasia
  • fibre type switching
46
Q

Systemic Effects of Endurance Training - Vascular

A
  • increased flow
  • increased vasoreactivity
  • increased angiogenesis
47
Q

Systemic Effects of Endurance Training - Metabolism

A
  • increased insulin sensitivity
  • increased oxidative phosphorylation
  • increased mitochondrial biogenesis
  • increased adipose ‘browning’
48
Q

Central Adaptation to Endurance Training - Blood Volume

A
  • plamsa volume and Hb increase
49
Q

Central Adaptation to Endurance Training - Stroke Volume

A
  • greater ventricular volume alongside greater myocardial contractility
50
Q

Central Adaptation to Endurance Training - Heart Rate

A
  • decrease at rest and sub-max-ex, no change in MHR
51
Q

Central Adaptation to Endurance Training - Cardiac Output

A
  • greater SV leads to greater max Q
52
Q

Central Adaptation to Endurance Training - Blood flow and Distribution

A
  • increase in total muscle blood flow during max-ex but decrease during sub-max-ex
53
Q

Central Adaptation to Endurance Training - Oxygen Extraction

A
  • increase extraction of O2 and a-VO2 difference
54
Q

Central Adaptation to Endurance Training - Arterial Blood Pressure

A
  • decrease in SBP and DBP at rest and submax
55
Q

Central Adaptation to Endurance Training - Ventilation

A
  • greater tidal volume and breathing frequency leads to greater overall ventilation during max-ex, but decreases during sub-max-ex
56
Q

Central Adaptations to Endurance Training

A
  • myocardial changes
  • hypervolemia
  • angiogenesis
  • respiration
57
Q

Trained Heart - Scharharg et al., 2002

A
  • the max pumping rate of the heart determines VO2max
58
Q

Trained Heart - Ekbom, 1968

A
  • endurance in trained athletes increase Q from 5 - 40L/min (Untrained increase from 5 - 20L/min)
  • increased cardiac performance during ex is related to eccentric left ventricular cardiac hypertrophy
59
Q

Benefits of Exercise to Endothelium

A
  • shear stress
  • cyclin strain
  • myokines (e.g., IL-6)
  • adipokines (e.g. adiponectin)
  • insulin
60
Q

Tesch et al., 1984 - aerobic exercise

A
  • regular aerobic exercise stimulates new capillary growth
  • allows a slower passage pf Hb facilitating better O2 extraction
61
Q

Chronic Microvascular Adaptations - Direct Exercise

A
  • blood vessels supplying active skeletal muscle (O2, glucose and O2 in; CO2, H+and CO2 out
  • increased vasodilator signalling
  • increased capillary density
  • increased insulin/PI3K signalling
62
Q

Chronic Microvascular Adaptations - Indirect Exercise

A
  • decreased HbA1c, decreased insulin secretion and decreased micro complications
63
Q

Hypervolemia (Increase in Blood Volume) - Convertino et al., 1980

A
  • 8% increase in blood volume accounted for by 12% increase in plasma volume following 8 consecutive days training
  • pv in first days of training account for bv increase
  • rbc can take > 4 weeks to increase in response to training
  • increased bv is due to initial protein and fluid shifts from extra- to intra-vascular space followed by increase in total body water
64
Q

Plasma Volume Expansion - Convertino et al., 1991

A
  • every 1% increae in PV leads to a similar % decrease in HR with endurance training
  • alters the frank-starling mechanism
  • hypervolemia leads to greater central venous pressure leads to end diastolic volume (cardiac preload) leads to greater stroke volume
  • hypervolemia increases Qmax and increased VO2max
65
Q

Pulmonary Adaptations to Endurance Training

A
  • reduce respiratort work at a given ex-intensity, lends more O2 to non-respiratory active skeletal musculature
  • max-ex: as Ve= Fb x TV, increase in VO2 max raises O2 requirement and elimination of CO2 via greater alveolar ventilation rate
  • sub-max-ex: endurance training reduces ventilatory equivalent for O2 (Ve/VO2) during sub-max-ex and lowers % of total O2 cost of breathing
  • decrease in O2 cost of breathing by ventilatory muscle enhances endurance by reducing fatigue and the non-used O2 by respiratory muscles is available elsewhere
66
Q

Babcock et al., 1998 - Endurance Training Benefits Ventilatory Muscles

A
  • inspiratory muscle fatigue occurs during prolonged intense exercise
  • enhances ability to sustain high levels of sub-max ventilation. training causes less disruption in whole-body hormonal and acid base balance that could negatively effect muscle function
  • increases inspiratory muscle capacity to generate force and sustain a given level of inspiratory pressure
  • performance is benefitted by reduced energy demand due to less respiratory work, reduced lactate production by ventilatory muscles and improve how ventilatory muscles metabolise as fuel
  • anaerobic threshold can be determined by ventilatory threshold, related to performance
67
Q

Muscle Adaptations to Endurance Training

A
  • hypertrophy
  • fuel storage
  • mitochondria
68
Q

Costill et al., 1976 - Hypertrophy of Type 1 Muscle Fibres

A
  • gastrocnemius muscle type 1 fibres; elite endurance runners 79%, non-elite middle distance runners 62%, and untrained 58%
  • fibre size in elite runners 30% bigger
  • genetic predisposition in determining muscle fibre response to ex shown through small magnitude of change with training
69
Q

Andersen and Henriksson, 1977 - Skeletal Muscle Adaptations to Regular Aerobic Exercise

A
  • 8 weeks of endurance training led to a conversion of type 11b to 11a
70
Q

Maughan et al., 1997 - Fuel Storage and Endurance Training

A
  • muscle glycogen storage is increased (due to increased sensitivity of muscle insulin receptors)
  • insulin promotes glucose uptake via GLUT4 transporters (25% higher in endurance trained muscle)
71
Q

Fuel Storage and Endurance

A
  • glycolytic enzymes are increased
  • training increases capacity for glycogen provided adequate time has elapsed and sufficient CHO is consumed
72
Q

Hurley et al., 1986 - Fuel Storage and Endurance

A
  • muscle TG concentrations significantly increase with endurance training and are used more
  • aerobic training reduces muscle glycogen use and plasma glucose oxidation during ex but increases the use of fat during ex
73
Q

Mendenhall et al., - Fuel Storage and Endurance

A
  • lower RER and muscular RQ
  • smaller rise in plasma FFA concentration
  • lower rate of use of blood glucose by muscle
  • reduced accumulation of muscle lactate
  • increased oxidation of lipid relative to CHO
    -
74
Q

Mitochondrial Size and Density

A
  • mitochondria don’t limit VO2max but influence performance by selection of energy used
  • greater mitochondrial (conc and size) means greater pyruvate oxidation and less lactate in cytosol at any given exercise intensity
  • greater mitochondria improves efficient ATP resynthesis via oxidation (more than 30mol ATP from OP, 3mol ATP produced by glycolysis)
  • more mitochondria improves fat oxidation
  • increased mitochondria number and size improves aerobic ATP production
75
Q

Kiessling et al., 1971 - Muscle Mitochondria Density and Enzyme Activity

A
  • mitochondria size is increased (~14-40%) in trained muscle
  • mitochondrial number increased (120%) in human vastus lateralis of trained men following 28 weeks training
76
Q

Holloszy et al., 1970 - Muscle Mitochondria Density and Enzyme Activity

A
  • trained muscle mitochondria increased capacity to generate ATP aerobically via oxidative phosphorylation
  • TCA cycle enzymes increased by 34-101% after treadmill training
  • isocitrate dehydrogenase increased by 90%
  • cytochrome C content increased 102%
77
Q

Gollnick and Saltin, 1983 - Muscle Mitochondria Density and Enzyme Activity

A
  • relationship between VO2max and and SDH (mitochondrial marker)

SR-334 (7 decks)

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