Endocrinology Flashcards
what is the homeostasis
Maintenance of a stable internal environment necessary for normal body functioning
is Stable ≠ static
Stable ≠ static
State of dynamic equilibrium
BALANCE of everyday physiological
processes
how is homeostasis in the internal enviornment
Our internal environment remains remarkably
consistent despite changes in the external
environment
does specialized organs allow moving the chemicals from the external enviornment to the internal enviornment in the body
Specialized organ systems allow movement
of chemicals from the external to the internal
or vice versa
what does homeostatic mechanism provide
• Homeostatic mechanisms provide the stable
conditions necessary for cell function
what fetures helps organs to mentain the homeostasis
Every organ in your body helps to maintain homeostasis through neural and/or hormonal mechanisms
what are the enviornmental changes controlled by
- Constant monitoring of the composition of blood (multiple sensory systems)
- Responding to changes in blood composition (multiple response systems)
- Most response systems operate in a negative feedback manner
what are the two factors in the enviornmental changes
Neurotransmitters + Hormones
body is the communication between …… and ……..
The body’s means of communication between cells and tissues
what is the homeostasis control mechanism
• SENSOR: Responsible for constant monitoring
• INTEGRATOR: Coordination of response(s)
• EFFECTOR: Response to effect change in
variable(s)
what are the sensor, integrator and affector in lyding»_space;»>stanging up
blood pressure falls: simulator blood pressure receptor responed: sensor brain: integrator center heart rate increase: affector 4. rise blood pressure : affect
what is the 10th leading death in canada
Mellitus diabets
how many of the canadians have the thyroid disorders
1 in the 10 canadians
what are the distruption of the homeostasis that cause the disease in the body
Overproduction: Hypersecretion Underproduction: Hyposecretion Hormone resistance Transport or clearance problems Hormone resistance
what is the endocrine physiology
Endocrine Physiology
The study of hormones and their actions
The study of how endocrine glands regulate
the physiology and behaviour of animals
what is the endocrine glands
Endocrine Glands
Any tissue which releases (secretes)
hormones into the bloodstream to effect
change in another tissue
what is the dicovery of pancreas involved in
Discovery of pancreas involvement in
diabetes
how Discovery of pancreas involvement in
diabetes
1.Surgically remove pancreas => dog
develops symptoms of diabetes
2. Implant pieces of pancreas under skin =>
prevents symptoms of diabetes
how the insulin is descovred
Discovery of insulin
(Banting and Best, 1921)
1. Identified anti-diabetic substance in
pancreatic extracts
2. Injected extracts prevented symptoms of
diabetes (prevents elevated blood
glucose)
how is the affect of the affect of the molecules secregation on the endocrine glands
Molecules secreted by endocrine
glands (organs) into the extracellular
the fluid that exerts their effects on the target
tissues some distance away
what are the level of the effcet
autocrine: secretory cell and the target cell are in the same tissue
paracrine: secretory cells affect target cells and other nearest tissue
endocrine : secretory cell segregate hormone in the blood stream and it goes through the target tissue via the circulatory system
what are the classes of the hormons
Amines
Peptides
Proteins
Steroids
what are the amins hormones
Norepinephrine
Epinephrine
Thyroxine
Melatonin
what are the peptid hormones
Hypothalamic
hormones
Insulin
what are the protein hormones
Growth hormone
Prolactin
what are the stroids hormones
Glucocorticoids
Mineralocorticoids
Gonadal steroids
what is the synthesis , storage , release from cell, transport in blood , half life, and example of the peptides/ proteins
Synthesis> In advance Storage >Secretory vesicles Release from cell >Exocytosis Release from cell > Exocytosis Half life> Short Example> Insulin
what is the synthesis , storage , release from cell, transport in blood , half life, and example of the Steroids
Synthesis > On demand Storage > -- Release from cell >Diffusion Transport in blood> Bound to carrier proteins Half life>Long Example >Estrogen
what is the synthesis , storage , release from cell, transport in blood , half life, and example of the Amines
(Catecholamines)
Synthesis>In advance Synthesis > In advance Release from cell> Exocytosis Transport in blood> Dissolved in plasma Half life > Short Example > Epinephrine
what is the synthesis , storage , release from cell, transport in blood , half life, and example of the Amines
(Thyroid)
Synthesis >In advance Storage > Secretory vesicles Release from cell > Diffusion Transport in blood> >Bound to carrier proteins Half-life > Long Example > Thyroxine
how hormones binf tot the receptors in the target cell
Hormones bind non-covalently to
receptors in/on target cells
where are the receptors for most hormones
• The receptors for most hormones
are found in the plasma membrane
of target cells
where are the receptors for steroid and thyroid hormones
• The receptors for steroid and
thyroid hormones are found in the
cytoplasm/nucleus of the target
cells
are receptor very high specificly
Receptors have very high specificity for a particular hormone (e.g., insulin receptors usually only bind insulin), but some non-specific binding does occur
• There is continuous turnover of
the receptor-hormone complex
(essential for any signaling system
• There is continuous turnover of
the receptor-hormone complex
(essential for any signaling system
what kind of the hormone receptor do we have in the body
transmembrane receptor»_space; most hormones
cytoplasm ( majority )
nucleus( thyroid hormone recptor )
how does the Transmembrane receptor works
Use second messenger systems
what are the second Transmembrane receptor types
G-protein linked receptors
Tyrosine kinase receptors Cytokine receptors
what are the two types of the G-protein linked receptors
Two types:
Adenylate cyclase-cAMP
Phospholipase C-Ca2+
how does G-protein linked receptors work
Downstream effects promote
phosphorylation + activation of enzymes responsible
for carrying out hormone’s effect
how does Tyrosine kinase receptors
Cytokine receptors work
Directly phosphorylate + activate enzymes responsible for carrying out hormone’s effect
which hormones use the second messenger
All hormones EXCEPT for steroid/thyroid hormones use 2nd messenger systems
what are the examples for the Adenylate cyclase-cAMP 2nd messenger system
Example: Norepinephrine + epinephrine
(catecholamines) beta adrenergic receptors
what are the Adenylate cyclase-cAMP 2nd messenger system steps
Steps:
1. Hormone binds to receptor
2. Alpha subunit dissociates from G proteins
3. Alpha subunit activates adenylate cyclase
4. cAMP is formed
5. cAMP activates protein kinase
6. Protein kinase phosphorylates various
enzymes in the cell
what are the Phospholipase C-Ca2+ 2nd messenger system examples
Example: Norepinephrine + epinephrine (catecholamines) alpha 1 adrenergic receptors
what are the Phospholipase C-Ca2+ 2nd messenger system steps
Steps:
- Hormone binds to receptor
- Alpha subunit dissociates from G proteins
- Alpha subunit activates phospholipase C
- DAG and IP3 is formed
- IP3 enters endoplasmic reticulum
- Stored Ca2+ diffuses into cytoplasm
explain the insulin receptor
- two half receptors form dimer prior to insulin binding
- insulin binding causes autophosphorylation of receptor
- activate tyrosine kinase of receptor phosphorylate insulin receptor substrate
- activate signaling molecule causes cascade of the effect
- glucose uptake and anabolic reaction
what are the Cytokine 2nd messenger system examples
Example: Growth hormone receptor
what are the Cytokine 2nd messenger system steps
Steps:
1. Hormone binds to receptor
2. JAKs are activated
3. Activated JAK proteins then phosphorylate
STAT proteins
4. Activated STAT proteins translocate to
nucleus to influence gene expression
what is the Nuclear hormone receptors example
Example:
Thyroid hormones
what is the Steroid hormones’s receptors steps
Steps: 1. Steroid hormone transported bound to a plasma carrier protein 2. Steroid hormone binds to a receptor in the cytoplasm 3. Translocates to the nucleus, binds to DNA (acts as a transcription factor) 4. Stimulates gene transcription 5. Protein products 6. Hormone response
what are the Thyroid hormones Steps:
Example: Thyroid hormones Steps: 1. Thyroxine hormone (T4) usually bound to carrier protein 2. T4 is converted into T3 (triiodothyroxine) 3. T3 enters nucleus 4. Hormone-receptor complex binds DNA 5. New mRNA 6. Protein synthesis 7. Hormone response
what is the role of the hormones in the changes in tissues
To enact change in tissues, many hormones are controlled via negative feedback mechanisms through hormone producing structures
what are the hormone producing structures:
- Endocrine organs within the hypothalamus-pituitary glandtarget cell (HPTC) axes
- Endocrine cell groups/zones/layers
• E.g. pancreatic islets, adrenal medulla - Dispersed endocrine cells
• E.g. gut hormones, thyroid parafollicular cells
what are the The biological relevance of HPTC axes
Links the endocrine system to the environment via the brain Step-wise increase in signal from
hypothalamus => pituitary gland => peripheral target tissues
Adjustments can be made at several different levels of each axis
HPTC axeis connect two things
Links the endocrine system to the environment via the brain
what does HPTC step-wise increase
Step-wise increase in signal from hypothalamus => pituitary gland => peripheral target tissues
can adjustment make at the HPTC
Adjustments can be made at several different levels of each axis
what does anterior pituitary control in the body
endocrine glands
what does posterior piturity control in the body
extension of neural tissues
what is the Hypothalamus and Pituitary Gland protected by
protected by bone
what are the two system that hypothalamus is master of
Hypothalamus is the master
controller of lower autonomic
functions AND the endocrine system
hypothalamus produce and secretes hormones into ……… and ………. lobe of the pituitary glands
Produces and secretes hormones
into the anterior and posterior lobe
of the pituitary gland
when does the hypothalamus produce or secrete hormones
Receives feedback from target
tissues to promote or inhibit
hormone production/release
what is the Pars distalis
Pars distalis: anterior lobe (endocrine part of pituitary gland)
what is the Pars tuberali
Pars tuberalis: wraps around
infundibulum
what is the Infundibulum
Infundibulum: funnel-shaped
structure
what is the Posterior lobe:
Posterior lobe: neural part of the pituitary gland (pars nervosa)
what is the action of the ADH/ oxytocin with the axonal
Axonal projections from neurosecretory cells of the hypothalamus supply pars nervosa with ADH/oxytocin
what are the Supraoptic nucleus neurosecretory
cells
Supraoptic nucleus neurosecretory
cells: ADH/oxytocin
what is the Paraventricular nucleus
neurosecretory cells
Paraventricular nucleus
neurosecretory cells:
Other hypothalamic hormones
what does Paraventricular nucleus neurosecretory cells do
These cells produce hypothalamic hormones
that are secreted into blood capillaries to
reach the anterior pituitary
what are the Importance of the anterior lobe
Function of target glands is dependent upon adequate stimulation by anterior pituitary (AP) hormones Hypothalamic hormones are secreted into the portal venules that bring them to the AP Endocrine cells respond to hypothalamic hormones and secrete OR inhibit release of AP hormones
function of the target glands is depends upon what ??
Function of target glands is dependent
upon adequate stimulation by anterior
pituitary (AP) hormones
Importance of the anterior lobe
Function of target glands is dependent upon adequate stimulation by anterior pituitary (AP) hormones Hypothalamic hormones are secreted into the portal venules that bring them to the AP Endocrine cells respond to hypothalamic hormones and secrete OR inhibit release of AP hormones
what are the hormones of the hypothalamus
dopamine (PIH) inhibits secretion of prolactin
PRH ( prolactin-releasing hormones ) Stimulates the release of prolactin TARGET THE MAMMARY GLANDS
thyrotropin-releasing hormone ( TRH) Regulates the secretion of thyroid-stimulating
hormone (TSH) thyroid
Corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) Regulates secretion of adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) & melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH) Adrenal cortex & skin and hair
Somatostatin (growth
hormone inhibiting hormone; GHIH) Inhibits secretion of growth hormone (GH) Growth hormone releasing hormone (GHRH) Stimulates secretion of GH target cells»_space;>Many (liver, muscle, bone, etc.)
Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) Regulates secretion of luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) target gland/tissue is Gonads
Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) released by posterior pituitary) target tissue /cell»_space;» Kidney
what is the CRH
CRH (Corticotropin releasing hormone)
Peptide hormone, G-protein-coupled
receptor (cAMP) on cells in anterior
pituitary
what is the ACTH
ACTH (Adrenocorticotropin hormone)
Peptide hormone, G-protein-coupled
receptor (cAMP) on cells in the adrenal
cortex
what is the ACTH
ACTH (Adrenocorticotropin hormone)
Peptide hormone, G-protein-coupled
receptor (cAMP) on cells in the adrenal
cortex
how does the CRH produced
CRH synthesis and release
Produced by neurosecretory cells within the
paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus
under noradrenergic stimulation
how does the CRH released
Released into blood vessels in the
hypothalamo-pituitary portal system
how does the capillaries bring CRH to simulate the G-protein
Capillaries bring CRH to stimulate G-proteincoupled receptors on cells in the anterior pituitary to produce POMC (prohormone)
what is the precursor molecule
Many hormones are derived from a precursor molecule (prohormone)
where does the processing of prohormone > hormone happens
Processing of prohormone => hormone
usually occurs within the gland cell
what are the prehormones
Prehormones: Inactive hormones are
converted after secretion to become
active in their target cells
what are some example of the prehormones
Examples of prehormones:
• Vitamin D3 is converted to 1,25-
dihydroxyvitamin D3 in target tissue
where does T4 convert to T3
Thyroxine (T4) is converted into triiodothyronine
(T3) in target tissue
what is the Pro-opiomelanocortin:
Pro-opiomelanocortin: A prohormone for many hormones
POMC is a precursor of which hormones
POMC is a precursor for ACTH,
MSH, and other hormones
in AP what has happend to the POMC
In the AP, POMC is produced
and cleaved into ACTH and Blipotropin
what is ACTH released by
Active ACTH hormone is released by anterior
pituitary and travels to adrenal glands
what does ACTH binds to
binds to MC2R (melanocortin-2 receptor; Gprotein-coupled)
what are the primary and secondery actions of the ACTH
Primary action: Stimulates secretion of
glucocorticoids (cortisol)
Secondary action: Stimulates secretion of sex
steroids
what is the adrenal glands
The Adrenal Glands
Paired organs that cap the superior borders of
the kidneys
Consist of an outer cortex and inner medulla
(function as separate endocrine glands)
what does medulla produces
Medulla: Produces catecholamines
epinephrine
what is the cotex made of and what are the each layer responsibility
Cortex: A steroid factory (corticosteroids)
- Zona glomerulosa: mineralocorticoids
(aldosterone) – regulates Na+ and K+ balance - Zona fasciculata: glucocorticoids
(cortisol) – regulates glucose balance - Zona reticularis: sex steroids (adrenal
androgens) – produced in small amounts
what is the starting material for the Steroidogenesis
Starting material: Cholesterol
what is common between steroid production
ALL steroid production begins with
the conversion of cholesterol to
pregnenolone
how to make cortisol
ACTH (through cAMP) stimulates insertion of StAR protein in the MB StAR protein helps cholesterol move to the inner membrane where it is then converted into pregnenolone Pregnenolone is then converted through a series of steps to become cortisol
what is the main glucocorticoid in the animals
Corticosterone is the
main glucocorticoid in
amphibians, reptiles,
rodents, and birds
what is the main glucocorticoid in the humans
Cortisol is the main
glucocorticoid in humans
how does cortisol is released
Cortisol Release triggered by:
• Chronic stress (trauma, starvation, exam season, etc.)
• Hypoglycemia
what are the immune system of the cortisol
Cortisol
Immune system:
• Decreases cytokine production
• Reduces the production of some immune cells and
cytokines
• Cortisol is a natural immunoregulatory hormone, but
can also be used clinically as an anti-inflammatory
agent