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Clinical Chem II > Endocrinology > Flashcards

Endocrinology Flashcards

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1
Q

What does the endocrine system consist of?

A

Organs or tissues that synthesize and secrete hormones
Hormones
Carrier proteins
Organs or tissues that are affected by hormones

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2
Q

List some organs or tissues in the endocrine system

A 
Pituitary 
Hypothalamus
Adrenal gland
Heart
Pancreas
Thymus
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3
Q

What is a hormone?

A

A hormone is a chemical substance made by an organ or tissue and secreted into the blood to have a specific effect on a tissue or structure

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4
Q

Where is a hormone secreted into after being synthesized by an organ or tissue?

A

Into the blood

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5
Q

What are endocrine hormones?

A

Hormones that affect or act on distant tissue, cells or organs

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6
Q

What are paracrine hormones?

A

Paracrine hormones are hormones that act locally, that is, tissues, cells or organs close by

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7
Q

What are autocrine hormones?

A

These hormones affect the cells that synthesize them by interacting with sepecific membrane receptors on its surface to induce effects

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8
Q

Give an example of an endocrine hormone

A

Insulin
Thyroxine
Cortisol

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9
Q

Give an example of a paracrine hormone

A

Neurotransmitter

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10
Q

Give an example of an autocrine

A

Bombesin

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11
Q

How are hormones classified?

A

By their tissue of origin and by their structures

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12
Q

Give the four classes of hormones

A

Polypeptides/protein
Steroids
Amino acid derivatives
Fatty acid derivatives

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13
Q

Majority of hormones fall under what class?

A

Polypeptides/proteins

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14
Q

What class of hormone is soluble on water only ?

A

Polypeptides/proteins

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15
Q

Polypeptide hormones are water soluble. What does this imply?

A

They circulate freely. That is, unbound without transporters

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16
Q

What is the half-life of a polypeptide hormone?

A

Short half life of 10-30 minutes

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17
Q

What is the half-life of a steroid?

A

Long half life of 30-90 mins

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18
Q

Polypeptides/proteins are water soluble, so move freely, unbound then bind to a membrane receptor. What does this imply about their effect?

A

They need a second messenger to actually carry their action in the cell

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19
Q

Give some examples of polypeptides

A

Insulin
Parathyroid hormone PTH
ACTH

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20
Q

What hormone class is insoluble in water?

A

Steroids

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21
Q

Steroid are water insoluble. What does this imply for their movement?

A

They require transporters/carrier proteins

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22
Q

How do steroids effect their function in terms of receptors?

A

Since they have transporters, they do not bind to membrane but diffuse into the cell and bind to cytoplasmic receptor

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23
Q

Give examples of steroids

A

Estrogen

Cortisol

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24
Q

What hormone type is soluble both in water lipids?

A

Amino acid derivatives

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25
Q

These hormones can move unbound or bound.

A

Amino acid derivatives

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26
Q

These hormones are derived direct,y from amino acids

A

Amino acid derivatives

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27
Q

GIve examples of amino acid derivatives

A

Thyroxine

Catacholamine

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28
Q

These hormones are derived from fatty acids

A

Fatty acid derivatives

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29
Q

Give an example of a fatty acid derivative

A

Prostaglandins

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30
Q

List the functions of hormones

A

Growth and development
Homeostatic control
Regulation of energy production

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31
Q

Hormones function to affect growth and development in a mechanism called?

A

Morphogenesis

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32
Q

List so,e hormones that participate in the body’s growth and development

A 
Gonadal steroids
Growth hormone GH
Cortisol
ACTH
Thyroxine
TSH
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33
Q

How do hormones control homeostasis?

A

By keeping the body functioning normally via control of physiological processes

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34
Q

List some hormones that control digestion/utilization of sugar

A

Insulin
Glucagon
Incretins

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35
Q

List some hormones that regulate calcium levels

A

PTH

Vitamin D

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36
Q

List some hormones that regulate salt and water balance of the body

A

Renin
ADH
Aldosterone

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37
Q

List some hormones that regulate fats and proteins

A

Cortisol
Klein
Thyroid hormones

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38
Q

How do hormones regulate energy production?

A

By controlling storage and usage of e energy like insulin that decreases plasma glucose while glucagon/epinephrine increase plasma glucose
We also need hormones for more energy

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39
Q

Why is hormone transportation important?

A

Because it affects hormone concentration and availability in the body.

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40
Q

Protein hormones are transported

A

Unbound

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41
Q

Give examples of steroid hormone transporters

A

Albumin
Sex hormone-binding protein
Cortisol-binding globulin

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42
Q

Give examples of amino acid hormone transporters

A

Albumin

Thyroxine-binding globulin

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43
Q

How does liver failure affect hormone levels?

A

Liver failure causes a decrease in carrier proteins like albumin which are synthesized in the liver. This causes high free hormone levels

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44
Q

For hormones carry out biological functions directly?

A

No, they’re just messengers

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45
Q

How do hormones work?

A

They carry messages to the cells and the cells carry out the intended biological function

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46
Q

What initiated biological response of the cells?

A

The binding of the hormones

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47
Q

How do hormones bind to a cell?

A

By binding to a receptor Either extracellularly (on surface) or intracellularly (inside the cell in cytoplasm or on nuclear membrane)

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48
Q

What the two characteristics import to hormone receptors?

A

High specificity

High affinity

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49
Q

Which hormones bind to receptors on cell surface?

A

Proteins

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50
Q

How do proteins bind cell surface membrane receptors?

A

By exerting control over phosphorylation of these functional molecules. They induce a conformational change in the receptor which leads to a cascade of signs, events.

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51
Q

The binding of polypeptides to cell surface receptors allow them to exert control over the phosphorylation of these functional molecules creating a conformational change in the receptors leading to a cascade of signal events. What are these events?

A

Activation of G proteins (secondary messengers)

Formation of cAMP

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52
Q

What are G proteins?

A

Secondary messengers needed by protein hormone binding on cell surface

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53
Q

This is a very important messenger get for the signal transduction pathway induced by protein hormones.

A

cAMP

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54
Q

What does the formation of cAMP result to?

A

Activation of protein kinases

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55
Q

What is the role of protein kinases?

A

Protein kinases carry out the biological functions causing phosphorylationon of other substances increasing their activity

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56
Q

This substance is considered the first messenger in either an activating or inhibitory response.

A

Hormone

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57
Q

Give the order of events in protein cell surface binding

A

Protein binding to cell surface receptor
G protein coupled receptor binds protein hormone
G protein subunits begin a cascade of enzyme activation
cAMP generation
Activation if protein kinases
Biological function

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58
Q

How do steroids and thyroid hormones bind into the cell?

A

By diffusing passively into the cell then binding to intracellular receptors

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59
Q

How does hormone intracellular binding work?

A

Hormone-receptor complex makes a conformational change and migrates into nucleus then binds to DNA. It directly controls DNA expressions at a specific gene and either activated gene transcription or repress gene transcription

60
Q

Where is the hypothalamus located?

A

At the base of the brain directly above the pituitary gland

61
Q

How is the hypothalamus connected to the pituitary gland?

A

By nerves and blood vessels called the pituitary stalk

62
Q

This organ is the highest command center of the endocrine system

A

Hypothalamus

63
Q

What are neurons in the hypothalamus responsible for?

A

Synthesizing releasing factors and inhibiting facts that regulate pituitary function

64
Q

What is the basic organization of the endocrine system?

A

Hypothalamic pituitary axis

65
Q

The pituitary gland is under the control of the

A

Hypothalamus

66
Q

How does the hypothalamus control the pituitary gland?

A

By secreting releasing hormones to regulate pituitary activity

67
Q

In a case, the hypothalamus secretes thyrotropin releasing hormone (TRH) which stimulates the pituitary to secrete thyrotropin/TSH which in turns stimu,ages the thyroid gland to secrete thyroid hormone. What is this called?

A

Positive regulatory function

68
Q

What two things regulate pituitary function

A

Hypothalamus

Negative feedback mechanism

69
Q

In a case, thyroid hormone inhibits the pituitary gland and reduces secretion of TSH. What is this called?

A

Negative feedback mechanism

70
Q

What is another name for the pituitary gland?

A

Hypophysis meaning under the hypothalamus

71
Q

Where is the pituitary gland located?

A

In the bone cavity at the base of the brain

72
Q

Name the two parts of the pituitary gland

A 
Anterior pituitary (adenohypophysis)
Posterior pituitary (neurohypophysis)
73
Q

Why is the pituitary gland called the ductless gland?

A

Because is secreted hormones directly into the blood

74
Q

Hormones are synthesized in how many different cell types a.

A

Five 5

75
Q

Secretion of hormones is controlled by?

A

Hypothalamus releasing factors

Negative feedback loops

76
Q

List all the hormones made by the anterior/adenohypophysis pituitary gland

A 
Growth hormone GH
Adrenocorticotropic hormone ACTH
Prolactin PRL
Thyroid stimulating hormone TSH
Lutenizing hormone LH
Follicle stimulating hormone FSH
77
Q

List the hormones made in the posterior/neurohypophysis pituitary gland

A

ADH

Oxytocin

78
Q

ACTH is released in response to

A

CRH (Corticotropic releasing hormone)

79
Q

What does ACTH do?

A

Stimulates the adrenal cortex as stress response

80
Q

Thai is stressed due to her IR exams on Friday morning. What hormone is going to be released by her pituitary gland?

A

ACTH

81
Q

After being stimulated by ACTH, the adrenal gland releases corticosteroids. What types of corticosteroids are released by the adrenals. Give examples.

A

Glucocorticoids- cortisol, corticosterone
Mineralocorticoids- aldosterone
Androgens

82
Q

What is the main stress hormone?

A

Cortisol

83
Q

What does cortisol do?

A

It increases circulating glucose, suppresses the immune system and inflammation

84
Q

What is the function of aldosterone?

A

Regulation of water, BP and heart rate

85
Q

ACTH is regulated by

A

Circadian rhythm

86
Q

When are cortisol levels highest and lowest?

A

Highest in the morning and lowest at night

87
Q

When is growth hormone released?

A

After onset of sleep

88
Q

What inductee the anterior pituitary gland to secrete GH?

A

Growth hormone releasing factor from the hypothalamus

89
Q

Growth hormone is inhibited by ?

A

Somatostatin

90
Q

What is creases growth hormone in the body?

A 
Sleep
Exercise 
Stress 
Hypoglycemia (low glucose)
Other hormones
91
Q

List the functions of growth hormone

A

Promotes growth in soft tissue, cartilage and bone
Stimulates protein synthesis
Mobilizes fat (lipolysis)
Releases IGF-1

92
Q

This hormone promotes growth in soft tissues, bones, cartilage

A

Growth factor

93
Q

This polypeptide effects most of the growth hormone’s actions

A

Insulin-like growth factors (IGF-1)

94
Q

Secretion of growth hormone is described as

A

Episodic and pulsatile

95
Q

Why is one time measurement of growth hormone inconclusive?

A

Because it is released in the body in episode and pulses

96
Q

One time measurement of what correlates better with grown hormone related clinical conditions?

A

IGF-1

97
Q

Prolactin is low in these two individuals

A

Males

Non pregnant females

98
Q

What is the main function of prolactin?

A

Initiation and maintenance of lactation during and after pregnancy

99
Q

How does prolactin initiate and maintain lactation during and after pregnancy?

A

Induces breast tissue growth

Synthesizescertain milk proteins

100
Q

What are the other functions of prolactin aside initiation and maintenance of lactation?

A

Immune system function

Induces synthesis of steroid hormones in ovaries

101
Q

What is the primary control of prolactin levels?

A

PRL inhibiting factor

102
Q

What is the inhibitor of prolactin?

A

Dopamine

103
Q

Dopamine (prolactin inhibiting factor) is affected by the presence of

A

Oxytocin, progesterone, estrogen, thyroid hormones and insulin in circulating blood

104
Q

LH and FSH fall under what category?

A

Gonadotropins

105
Q

Gonadotropins are important in what?

A

Reproductive function of both males and females

106
Q

What does luteinizing hormone do?

A

Induces synthesis and secretion of sex hormones like estrogen and testosterone

107
Q

What does follicle secreting hormone does?

A

Promotes germ cell production for ovulation and spermatogenesis

108
Q

Hypothalamic neurons send what to the posterior pituitary gland?

A

Their axons

109
Q

Where are neurohypophysis hormones made and stored?

A

Made in the hypothalamus. Stored in the neurohypophysis

110
Q

What is the only proven clinical function of oxytocin?

A

Stimulating contraction of the uterus during labor for birth

111
Q

Oxytocin is primed by

A

Estrogen

112
Q

What are the two sex hormones synthesized and secreted by the luteinizing hormone?

A

Estrogen and testosterone

113
Q

What is another function of oxytocin that indicates it works with prolactin?

A

Milk let down reflex function. Stimulating lactating mammary gland for breastfeeding

114
Q

What is a another name for ADH?

A

Vasopressin

115
Q

What are the two main functions of ADH?

A
  • Maintain water balance by regulating the kidney to reduce urine production and resort water in renal tubules
  • Vasoconstriction: Increasing BP by contracting muscle wall of capillaries and arterioles
116
Q

Typically, how many hormones are affected in hyperpituitarism?

A

One hormone made by one cell type

117
Q

What is primary hyperpituitarism?

A

This is hyperpituitarism in which the problem is intrinsic to the pituitary gland like pituitary adenoma (tumor) or hyperplasia (hyperproliferating normal cells)

118
Q

What is secondary hyperpituitarism?

A

This is hyperpituitarism in which the problem comes from either overstimulation of the hypothalamus or ectopic production of a hormone occurring by a non endocrine tissue like a tumor

119
Q

Hypo secretion of hormones can involve one, several or all hormones. Hyposecretion of all hormone is called

A

Panhypopituitarism

120
Q

Sing,e hormone hypopituitarism usual,g results from what?

A

The destruction of one specific type of cells in the pituitary

121
Q

What is the most common cause of hypo pituitarism?

A

Pituitary adenoma

122
Q

How does a functional tumors affect pituitary secretion?

A

A functional tumor usually results in hyper secretion of the one hormone made by that tumor causing hypo secretion of all others

123
Q

How does a non functional tumors affect pituitary secretion?

A

A non functional tumor leads to tissue destruction and hypo secretion of all hormones

124
Q

Effects of hyoersecretion of growth hormone are

A

Age dependent

125
Q

How does hypersecretion of growth hormone manifests in children?

A

Gigantism. Proportional enlargement of all portions of the body.

126
Q

How does hypersecretion of growth hormone manifests in adults?

A

Acromegaly. Progressive enlargement of distal extremities like hands, feet and face, soft tissues

127
Q

List the symptoms seen in hypersecretion of growth hormone

A
  • Excessive growth and soft tissue problems including vasculature issues
  • Hyperglycemia with possibility of developing DM
  • Large facial features, overgrown tongue, enlarged heart
  • Death in case of cardiac failure, respiratory failure or neurological issues
128
Q

What are the symptoms of hypo secretion of growth hormone?

A

Stunted growth in adolescence. Dwarfism in children
Hypoglycemia
Adult GH deficiency

129
Q

What is the most common form of dwarfism?

A

Achondroplasia

130
Q

How does hyposecretion of growth hormone affects glucose and insulin?

A

Decreased growth hormone decreases gluconeogenesis and increases tissue insulin sensitivity

131
Q

What are the symptoms seen in adultGH deficiency?

A

Low muscle mass and bone density
High fat mass and adverse lipid profile
Cardiovascular risk
Low energy, irritability

132
Q

How is hyposecretion of GH treated?

A

GH injection therapy

Vasoritide

133
Q

What is laron syndrome?

A

A rare autosomal recessive genetic form of dwarfism in which tissue is resistant to growth hormone

134
Q

How is laron syndrome different from achondroplasia?

A

In Laron syndrome, there is enough growth hormone in the body but lack of growth hormone receptors on tissues causing no synthesis of IGF so growth issues but achondroplasia is actual,y lack of growth hormone

135
Q

What is the most common hypothalamic/pituitary disorder?

A

Hyperprolactinemia

136
Q

Hyperprolactinemia leads to?

A

Galactorrhea (inappropriate milk production)
Amenorrhea in females (cessation of periods)
Infertility in males

137
Q

What causes Hyperprolactinemia?

A

Stress, sleep loss, low sexual stimulation, certain drugs, decreased dopamine
Pituitary adenoma, hypothyroidsm, liver or renal failure
Hypogonadism

138
Q

What is the name given to hypersecretion of ADH?

A

Syndrome of inappropriate ADH - SIADH

139
Q

What is the name given to hypo secretion of ADH?

A

Diabetes insipidus

140
Q

What causes SIADH?

A

Sustained production/release of ADH, ectopic tumors, lung cancer
Kidney preserves too much water
Urine output greatly reduced/concentrated/hypertonic

141
Q

How is sodium affected in SIADH?

A

Dilutional hyponatremia cuz of low Na levels from excess water rentention

142
Q

What symptoms are seen in SIADH?

A

Weakness
Poor mental function
Coma (brain edema)

143
Q

What are the two types of diabetes insipidus seen in hyposecretion of ADH?

A

Primary - hypothalamus under secretes ADH

Secondary- kidney is not sensitive to ADH

144
Q

What are the symptoms of hyposecretion of ADH?

A

Fluid loss
Polydipsia
Polyuria
Altered mental status

145
Q

What do labs show in diabetes insipidus?

A 
Normal glucose
Very concentrated blood
Hypernatremia
High protein levels
Diluted urine
146
Q

How do nerve cells differ in SIADH and DI?

A

Nerve cells swell in SIADH and shrink in DI

147
Q

What is pitocin?

A

Synthetic IV dose of oxytocin given to some women during labor if their uterus doesn’t seem to be contracting long or strong enough to advance their labor or birth

Clinical Chem II (10 decks)

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