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1003 > Endocrine System > Flashcards

Endocrine System Flashcards

1
Q

Describe how cells make up organisms

Use the cardiovascular system as an example

A

Cell
Specialised function e.g. cardiomyocyte

Tissue:
Group of cells working together e.g. myocardium

Organ:
Group of tissues working together to perform a function
E.g. the heart

Organ system e.g. cardiovascular system

Organisms

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2
Q

What are the main tissue types in the endocrine system and give examples of locations and functions of these

A

Epithelial: Make up the bulk of most glands and secretes many types of hormones

Connective: blood circulates hormones throughout the body

Nervous: parts of the brain secrete some hormones and control release of others; some neurons secrete hormones

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3
Q

What is epithelia?

A

They cover outer or line inner surfaces

Epithelia have no capillaries of their own

They receive oxygen through nutrients from the blood supply and connective tissue underneath

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4
Q

Draw an example of a simple squamous epithelium and say where this is found

A

See lecture notes

Found in air sacs of the lungs

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5
Q

Draw a diagram of a simple cuboidal epithelium and state where this is found in the body

A

See lecture notes

Found in the kidney

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6
Q

Draw an example of simple columnar epithelium and state where this is found

A

See lecture notes

Found in the intestine

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7
Q

Draw an example of pseudo-stratified ciliated columnar epithelium and state where this is found

A

See lecture notes

Found in respiratory tract

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8
Q

Draw stratified squamous epithelium and state where this is found in the body

A

See lecture notes

Esophagus

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9
Q

Draw the flow chart showing epithelia classification

A

See lecture notes

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10
Q

What is the function of ribosomes?

A

Where proteins are synthesised

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11
Q

Draw a diagram of a cell showing the apical and basal sides of the cell

A

Apical is on the side of the lumen

Basal is in contact with the basal lamina and underlying tissue e.g. blood capillaries and muscles

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12
Q

Describe what epithelial tissue is, the function and the structure

Draw a diagram showing this

A

Tightly packed cells that form a continuous layer

Protective function

May also be able to secrete, absorb, excrete or filter substances

Exposed on one side, connected to a basement membrane on the other side

Named based on the number of cell layers and the shape of the cells

These features are related to the specialised function that the cells need to perform

See lecture notes for diagram

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13
Q

What is homeostasis?

A

Homeostasis is the maintenance of a relatively constant internal environment

The body systems help to maintain homeostasis by adjusting their physiological response when conditions change

Internal environment is maintained close to an optimal point even though the external environment may change dramatically e.g. the external temperature may change but the body temperature remains near 37 degrees

If homeostasis is not maintained, the function of the organism is adversely adversely affected and illness occurs

The existence of a stable internal environment

It is crucial to survival

The environment is unpredictable

All body systems must react to fluctuations in the environment to resist change

Pathology emerges when homeostatic mechanisms break down

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14
Q

Discuss how body systems maintain homeostasis

A

All body systems work together to keep the internal environment relatively constant and maintain homeostasis

The nervous and endocrine systems co-ordinate and regulate the other systems

The cardiovascular, respiratory, digestive and urinary systems regulate the amount of gases, nutrients, water and wastes in the blood and interstitial fluid

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15
Q

Why is a stable environment crucial? And what happens if this is not maintained?

A

All metabolic reactions under influence of enzymatic control

Enzymes act maximally in a desired range of:
Ph
Temperature

Destabilisation leads to pathology and death

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16
Q

What are the two principles of homeostatic regulation

A

Requires co-ordinated efforts of multiple organ systems

Two general mechanisms:

Intrinsic (auto) regulation: cells regulating their own milieu

Extrinsic regulation: nervous and endocrine system maintain this

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17
Q

Discuss the concept of normal physiological ranges

A

Physiological functions are maintain within a normal range rather than a fixed value

Physiological values oscillate around a set-point

Set points may vary accordingly to changing environments/activity

The regulatory processes must therefore by dynamic

Homeostatic set points are determined by genetics, age, gender, health status and environment

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18
Q

What is the normal temperature range? And what is high and low temperature called?

A

37 degrees

Pyrexia is too hot

Hypothermia is too cold

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19
Q

What is the normal range of pulse rate? What is high and low pulse rate called?

A

60-80 beats per minute

Fast: tachycardia

Slow: bradycardia

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20
Q

What is the normal range of blood pressure?

What is high and low blood pressure called?

A

120/80mmHg

High: hypertension

Low: hypotension

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21
Q

What is the normal range of blood glucose?

What is high and low blood glucose called?

A

4.5 - 5.6mmol/l

High: hyperglycaemia

Low: hypoglycaemia

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22
Q

What is the range of respiratory rate? ;

A

14 to 20 respiration’s/ minute

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23
Q

What is the range of blood gases:

And what are high and low ranges called

A

Arterial pO2; 75-100mmHg
CO2; 36-46mmHg

High: hypercapnia
Low: hypocapnia

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24
Q

What is the range of pH balance in arterial blood?

A

7.35 - 7.45

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25
Q

What is the blood electrolyte balance?

A

Na+, K+, Cl-, Ca2+, Mg2+

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26
Q

What is negative feedback?

A

Primary mechanism of homeostatic regulation, providing ling term control over internal conditions by opposing change

Negative feedback resists physiological deflections away from the body’s set-point

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27
Q

What is positive feedback?

A

Initial stimulus produces a response that exaggerates the change seldom encountered (blood clotting cascade and childbirth)

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28
Q

What is negative feedback and what are the three components?

A

Negative feedback is the primary mechanism that is used to keep a variable close to the optimum level and maintain homeostasis

The three compartments are:

  • a sensory that detects a change in the internal environment
  • a control centre that instructs a response to counteract the change
  • an effector that gets activated to produce a physiological response that brings conditions back to the optimum level
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29
Q

Draw and label a negative feedback diagram, showing the sensor, control centre and the effect that resolves the issue

A

See lecture notes

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30
Q

How does Negative feedback regulate high body temperature?

Draw a diagram showing this

A

When body temperature rises above normal

The hypothalamus senses the changes and causes:
Blood vessels to dilate
Sweat glands to secrete, so that the the rapture returns to normal

When the body temperature is above normal, the control centre directs the skin to dilate. This allows more blood to flow near the surface of the body, where heat can be lost to the environment. In addition, the nervous system activates the sweat glands, and the evaporation of sweat helps lower body temperature. Gradually, body temperature decreases to 37 degrees

See lecture notes for diagram

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31
Q

How does negative feedback regulate low body temperature?

Use a diagram to show this

A

See lecture notes for diagram

When body temperature falls below normal:
The hypothalamus senses the change and causes blood vessels to constrict
In addition, shivering may occur to bring the temperature back up to normal. In this way, the original stimulus is resolved, or corrected

The control centre directs blood vessels of the skin to constrict. This conserves heat. If the body temperature falls even lower, the control centre sends nerve impulses to the skeletal muscles and shivering occurs. Shivering generates hear and gradually the body temperature rises to 37 degrees. When the temperature rises to normal, the control centre is inactivated

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32
Q

What is positive feedback?

A

Positive feedback is a mechanism by which the body responds to a change by amplifying it

It brings about rapid change in the same direction as the stimulus

Positive feedback DOES NOT maintain homeostasis

Only few biological functions demonstrate positive feedback e.g. childbirth and blood clotting

Positive feedback may also occur in disease
For example: a fever that rises above 42 degrees

Positive feedback does not last forever, once the relevant biological process is complete, other controls cut off the positive feedback loop and restores balance.

33
Q

What are hormones?

A

Endogenous bio active substances which are distributed throughout the body via the bloodstream, to induce physiological changes in specific target cells

34
Q

How do hormones target specific cells?

A

Most hormones are distributed by the bloodstream to target cells. Target cells have receptors for the hormones, and a hormone combines with a receptor. Like a key fits its lock

1: cells of endocrine gland produce hormone
2: gland secretes hormones into the bloodstream
3: hormones circulate throughout the body
4: hormones bind onto to target cells
If the receptor binds to the target cell a response happens
If the receptor doesn’t bind, no effects happen on the cell

35
Q

What is a gland?

A

One or more cells that secrete a substance

36
Q

What does unicellular mean?

A

One cell (goblet cells)

37
Q

What does multicellular mean?

A

More than one cell

38
Q

What are exocrine glands?

A

Have ducts (tubes) to carry the secretion away from the site of function

Examples: sweat, oil and gastric glands

39
Q

What are endocrine glands:

A

Are ductless, they secrete hormones that enter capillaries and circulate through the body to the target organs

  • thyroid glands
  • adrenal glands
  • pituitary glands
40
Q

Is the pancreas an exocrine or endocrine gland?

A

It is an exocrine gland (digestive enzymes) and an endocrine gland (insulin and glucagone)

41
Q

Draw diagrams showing the difference between circulating hormones and local hormones

A

See lecture notes

42
Q

Compare endocrine, paracrine and autocrine hormones

A

Endocrine: cells realise chemicals called hormones into the circulation which act as target cells to regulate their activities

Paracrine: local hormone
Communication occurs from cell to cell within a tissue

Autocrine:
Local hormone
Communication occurs when the hormones act on the same cells that secretes them

Circulating (endocrine) hormones are carried through the bloodstream to act on distant target cells. Pancrines act on neighbouring cells and autocrines act on the same cells that produce them

43
Q

Compare and contrast the endocrine and nervous system when controlling homeostasis

A

Endocrine and nervous systems work in parallel to control homeostasis, growth and maturation

Nervous system co-ordinates rapid responses to stimuli using electrical conduction

The endocrine system maintains long term control using chemical signals

Endocrine system:
Collection of glands secreting chemical messengers called hormones
Hormones pass through the blood to reach target receptors

44
Q

How does the action of a neurotransmitter differ from that of a hormone?

A

Nerve impluses pass along an axon causing the realise of a chemical signal, the neurotransmitter

A hormone e.g. insulin, is a chemical signal that travels in the cardiovascular system from the pancreas to the liver where it causes liver cells to store glucose as glycogen

45
Q

Compare the nervous system and endocrine system in the following properties:

Anatomical arrangement

A

Nervous system:
A wired system, specific structural arrangement between neurons and their target cells, with structural continuity in the system

Endocrine system:
A wireless system
Endocrine glands are widely dispersed and not structurally related to one another or their target cells

46
Q

Compare the nervous system and endocrine system in the following properties:

Type of chemical messenger

A

Nervous system:
Neurotransmitters released into the synaptic cleft

Endocrine system:
Hormones released into the blood

47
Q

Compare the nervous system and endocrine system in the following properties:

Distance of action of chemical messengers

A

Nervous system:
Very short distance (diffuses across synaptic cleft)

Endocrine system:
Long distance
Carried by the blood

48
Q

Compare the nervous system and endocrine system in the following properties:

Specificity of action on target cells

A

Nervous system: dependant on close anatomical relationship between neurons and their target cells

Endocrine system:
Dependant on specificity of target cell binding and responsiveness to a particular hormone

49
Q

Compare the nervous system and endocrine system in the following properties:

Speed of response

A

Nervous system
General rapid
Milliseconds

Endocrine system:
Generally slow
Minutes to hours

50
Q

Compare the nervous system and endocrine system in the following properties:

Duration of action

A

Nervous system:
Brief
Milliseconds

Endocrine:
Long
Minutes to days or longer

51
Q

Compare the nervous system and endocrine system in the following properties:

Major functions

A

Nervous system:
Co-ordinates rapid, precise responses

Endocrine system:
Controls activities that require long duration rather than speed

52
Q

Name the tissues and glands with secondary endocrine functions

A

Thymus gland

Heart

Stomach

Adipose tissue

Kidneys

53
Q

Name the main endocrine glands

A

Pineal body

Pituitary gland

Thyroid gland

Parathyroid gland

Adrenal gland

Pancreatic islets

Ovaries in females

Testes in males

54
Q

What are the five types of hormones and how are they grouped?

A

Hormones are grouped into 5 classes based on their structure

1: steroids (oestrogen)
2: peptides (oxytocin and ADH)
3: amines (epinephrine)
4: proteins (growth hormones and insulin)
5: glycoproteins (FSH/TSH)

55
Q

What are steroids?

A

Lipids derived from cholesterol

Cortisol, secreted from adrenal cortex plays a role in mediating stress response

Testosterone and oestradiol secreted from the gonads and placenta is response for male and female sexual characteristics

Once synthesised, steroids pass into the bloodstream by they are not stored

Synthesis rate controls the amounts

56
Q

What is cortisol used for?

A

Glucocorticoid Used in stress

57
Q

What are progesterone and androstenedione used for?

A

They are sex steroids used for sexual differentiation

58
Q

How does the structure of estradiol differ from that of testosterone?

A

Estradiol: has HO on the end of the basic steroid structure

Testosterone: has O with a double bond on the end of the basic steroid structure

59
Q

What is a peptide?

A

Short chain of amino acids

Large. Majority of hormones produced

Secreted by pituitary, parathyroid, heart, stomach, liver and kidneys

Synthesised as precursor molecules and stored in secretory granules

Different end hormones can be made by cleaving a common precursor with a different enzyme

60
Q

What are amines?

A

Derived from tyrosine

Secreted from thyroid and adrenal medulla

Amines like epinephrine (adrenaline) stored as granules in the cytoplasm until needed

61
Q

Describe the mechanism of action of lipid soluble steroid or thyroid hormones

A

A steroid hormone passes directly through the target cells plasma membrane before binding to a receptor in the nucleus or cytoplasm. The hormone-receptor complex binds to DNA and gene expression follows

Non water soluble:
Pass through the plasma membrane initiating a 2-step process
Activated hormone receptor complex is formed within the cell
Complex binds to DNA and activates specific genes
Gene activation leads to the production of key proteins

62
Q

Draw and label a diagram showing the mechanism of action of lipid-soluble hormones

A

See lecture notes

63
Q

Draw and label a diagram showing the mechanism of action of lipid soluble steroid or thyroid hormones

A

See lecture notes

64
Q

Dra wand label the mechanism of action of water soluble hormones such as amines, peptides and proteins

A

See lecture notes

65
Q

What is the hypothalamus and pituitary gland?

A

The hypothalamus is the part of the brain that controls the endocrine system, known as the master switchboard

The pituitary gland and the hypothalamus act as a uni, regulating the activity of the endocrine glands

The pituitary gland lies below the hypothalamus, to which it is attached by a stalk

It is the size of a pea and weighs about 500mg and consists of two main parts that originate from different types of cells

66
Q

What are the two parts of the pituitary gland and what are the functions of the pituitary gland?

A

The anterior pituitary (adenohypophysis) is an upgrowth of glandular epithelium from the pharynx

The posterior pituitary (neurohypophysis) is a down growth of nervous tissue from the brain. There is a network of nerve fibres between the hypothalamus and the posterior pituitary

67
Q

What hormones are realised from the hypothalamus and the posterior pituitary and what are the effects of these on the body?

A

Releasing and inhibiting hormones:
Control the anterior pituitary

Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
Released by posterior pituitary, causes water reuptake by the kidneys

Oxytocin:
Released by posterior pituitary, causes uterine contractions

68
Q

What hormones are released from the anterior pituitary gland and what affects do these have on the body?

A

Gonadotropic hormones:
stimulate gonads

Thyroid-stimulating hormones (TSH)
Stimulates thyroid

Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ATCH) 
Stimulates adrenal cortex

Prolactin:
Causes milk production

Growth hormone (GH) 
Causes cell division, protein synthesis and bone growth
69
Q

What are the two hormones secreted by the hypothalamus? Where are these stored And what are the functions of these

A

ADH and oxytocin

They are stored and secreted by the posterior pituitary

Oxytocin:
Mammary glands
Smooth muscle in the uterine

ADH:
Kidney tubules

70
Q

How does the hypothalamus control the secretions from the anterior pituitary?

A

The hypothalamus controls the secretions of the anterior pituitary and the anterior pituitary controls the secretions of the thyroid gland, and renal cortex and gonads. Which are also endocrine glands

Growth hormone and prolactin are also produced by the anterior pituitary

71
Q

What hormones are secreted by the anterior pituitary gland and what are their functions?

A

Growth hormone:
Regulates metabolism
Promotes tissue growth especially of bones and muscles

Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH)
Stimulates growth and activity of the thyroid gland and secretion of T3 and T4

Adrenocorticotropic hormone:
Stimulates the adrenal cortex to secrete glucocorticoids

Prolactin (PRL)
Stimulates growth of breast tissue and milk production

Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)
Stimulates production of sperm in the testes, stimulates secretion of oestrogen by the ovaries, maturation of ovarian follicles, ovulation

Luteinising hormone (LH) 
Stimulates secretion of testosterone by the testes, stimulates secretion of progesterone by the corpus Luteum
72
Q

Draw and label a negative feedback system showing the secretion of hormones by the anterior pituitary gland

A

See lecture notes

73
Q

How does the hypothalamus stimulate the anterior pituitary?

A

The hypothalamus releases multiple hormones that influence hormone production in the anterior pituitary

Both peptides

Releasing hormones:
Stimulates release of hormones from the anterior pituitary

Inhibiting hormones:
Inhibit the release of hormones from the anterior pituitary

74
Q

How does the hypothalamus stimulate the posterior pituitary?

A

Produces two hormones that are stored in and released by the posterior pituitary

75
Q

What hormones are secreted by the anterior pituitary gland? Wheat are their functions? And how are they regulated?

A

ADH:
Increases water reabsorption by the kidney tubules (water returns to the blood)
Decreases sweating
Causes vasoconstriction in large amounts

Regulated by decreased water content in the body (alcohol inhibits secretion)

Oxytocin:
Promotes contraction of the myometrium of the uterus
Promotes release of Milk from the mammary glands

Regulated by: nerve impulses from the hypothalamus, the result of stretching of cervix or stimulation of nipple secretion from placenta at end of gestation
Stimulus is unknown

76
Q

Describe positive feedback using childbirth as an example

A

When a woman is giving birth, the head of the baby begins to press against the cervix (entrance to the womb), stimulating sensory receptors there. When nerve signals reach the brain, the brain causes the pituitary glands to secrete the hormone oxytocin. Oxytocin travels in the blood and causes the uterus to contract.

As labour continues, the cervix is increasingly stimulated, and uterine contractions become stronger until birth occurs

77
Q

Draw and label a diagram showing how oxytocin stimulates the uterine smooth muscles during childbirth

A

See lecture notes

78
Q

Drawn and label a diagram showing how oxytocin stimulates the muscle cells of lactating breasts after childbirth

A

See lecture notes

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