Endo Flashcards
What are the major glands of the endocrine system?
- hypothalamus
- pituitary
- thyroid
- parathyroid
- pancreas
- adrenals
- ovaries and testes
- pineal gland
What secretes hormones to regulate many bodily functions, including growth and metabolism?
major endocrine glands
Like the nervous system, what is one of your body’s main communicators?
endocrine system
What is a specific cell with specific receptors that will respond to specific hormones?
Target cells
What is the only cells for a given hormone and have receptors that bind and recognize that hormone?
target cells
A target cell will have what range of receptors for a particular hormone?
2,000 to 100,000
What are the two types of hormones?
lipid-soluble
water-soluble
What are the three types of lipid horomones?
- steroid
- thyroid
- nitric oxide
What is a water soluble hormone?
amino acid
What are the two types of amino acids?
Short-chain; Antidiuretic hormone
long-chain; Insulin
How do hormones influence their target cells?
chemically binding to specific protien receptors
What is known as the master switchboard because it’s the part of the brain that controls the endocrine system?
hypothalamus
What acts as a major link between the endocrine system and the nervous system?
hypothalamus
What hangs by a thin stalk from the hypothalmus?
pituitary gland
What is called the master gland of the body because it secretes several hormones that control other endocrine glands?
pituitary gland
How many hormones does the hypothalamus secretes?
9
How many hormones does the pituitary gland secrete?
7
The hormones produces from the hypothalamus and the pituitary gland play an important role in regulating virtually all aspects of?
- growth
- development
- metabolism
- homestasis
What attaches the pituitary gland to the hypothalamus?
stalk like structure called the infundibulum
What blood vessels connect capillaries in the hypothalamus to capillaries in the anterior pituitary and carries hormones secreted by the hypothalamus to the anterior pituitary?
hypophyseal portal veins
Where are the hypophyseal portal veins located?
within the infundibulum
Gonadotropin-releasing hormone stimulates?
- FSH
- LH
Growth hormone-releasing hormone stimulates?
- HGH
- IGF
Growth hormone-inhibiting hormone inhibits?
- HGH
- IGF
Thyroid-releasing hormone stimulates?
TSH
Prolactin-releasing hormone stimulates?
PR
Prolactin-inhibiting hormone inhibits?
PR
Corticotropin-releasing hormone stimulates?
ACTH
What gland is the size of a grape and has two lobes?
pituitary gland
What are the two lobes of the pituitary gland?
- anterior
- posterior
Where do both lobes of the pituitary gland rest?
hypophyseal fossa
What is a cup shaped depression in the sphenoid bone?
hypophyseal fossa
What hormones act on other endocrine glands or tissues to regulate the secretion of another hormone?
tropic hormones
What promotes synthesis and secretion of Insulinlike Growth Factors (IGFs)
Human Growth Hormone (hGH)
What are proteins secreted mainly by cells in the liver, but also secreted by cells in the skeletal muscles, cartilage, bones, and other tissue in response to stimulation of hGH?
Insulinlike Growth Factors
What helps maintain muscle and bone mass, and promote healing of injury and tissue repair?
hGH stimulated protein synthesis
What enhances the breakdown of triglycerides and liver glycogen?
hGH
The breakdown of triglycerides release what into the blood?
fatty acids
The breakdown of liver glycogen releases what into the blood?
glucose
What maintains blood concentration by means of a negative feedback loop?
hGH
What are the two hypothalamic hormones that control secretion of hGH?
Growth Hormone-Releasing Hormone (GHRH)
Growth Hormone-Inhibiting Hormone (GHIH)
What hypothalamic hormone is stimulated by low blood glucose levels?
Growth Hormone-Releasing Hormone (GHRH)
What hypothalamic hormone is stimulated by hyperglycemia?
Growth Hormone-Inhibiting Hormone (GHIH)
What stimulates the synthesis and secretion of thyroid hormones by the thyroid gland?
Thyroid-stimulating Hormone (TSH)
What controls TSH secretion?
Thyrotropin-releasing Hormone (TRH) from hypothalamus
In females, what initiates the development of ovarian follicles, and stimulates follicular cells to excrete estrogen?
FSH
In males, what stimulates sperm production in the testes?
FSH
What controls FSH secretion?
GnRH from hypothalamus
In females, What triggers ovulation, stimulates formation of the corpus luteum in the ovary and the secretion of progesterone by the corpus luteum, and along with FSH stimulates follicular cells to secrete estrogen?
LH
In males, what stimulates the testes to secrete testosterone?
LH
What controls LH secretion?
GnRH from the hypothalamus
What initiates and maintains milk production by the mammary glands?
prolactin (PRL)
What suppresses the release of prolactin most of the time?
prolactin-inhibiting hormone (PIH)
Very high levels of what promote secretion of prolactin releasing hormone (PRH) which in turn stimulates the release of prolactin?
estrogen
What controls the production and secretion of hormones called Glucocorticoids by the cortex (outer portion) of the adrenal glands?
adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
What stimulates secretion of adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)?
Corticotropin-releasing hormone from the hypothalamus
What hormone is very little in humans and excessive amounts can cause darkening of the skin?
Melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH)
What contains axon and axon terminals of neurosecretory cells whose cell bodies are in the hypothalamus?
posterior pituitary
What part of the pituitary gland does not synthesize hormones but does store and release two hormones?
posterior pituitary
What two hormones are released from the posterior pituitary?
- oxytocin
- antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
What is released in large quantities just prior to childbirth to enhance contraction of smooth muscles cells in the wall of the uterus?
oxytocin
What stimulates milk ejection from the mammary glands in response to suckling infants?
oxytocin
What decreases urine production, causes the kidneys to remain more water, thus decreasing urine volume, decreases water loss from perspirations, causes constriction of arterioles, thus causing an increase in blood pressure?
Antidiuretic hormones (ADH)
In the absence of ADH an individuals urine output will increase from 1-2 liters to?
20 liters per day
What glands function is to run the basal metabolic rate?
thyroid gland
What is the rate at which the body uses energy while at rest to keep vital functions going, such as breathing, keeping the heart beating, and keeping the body warm?
basal metabolic rate (BMR)
What is the butterfly shaped gland is located just below the larynx?
thyroid gland
What is composed of right and left lobes on either side of the trachea?
thyroid gland
What are the spherical sacs that make up most of the thyroid gland?
thryroid follicles
The walls of each thyroid follicle consists of cells that produce what two thyroid hormone?
thyroxine (T4)
triiodothyronine (T3)
What increases basal metabolic rate (BMR), the rate of oxygen consumption under standard or basal conditions( awake, at rest, and fasting)?
thyroid hormones
What plays an important role in the maintnence of normal body temperature?
thyroid hormone
What stimulates protein synthesis, increases the use of glucose and fatty acid for ATP production, increase the breakdown of triglycerides, and enhance cholesterol exertion, thus reducing blood cholesterol?
thyroid hormones
Thyroid hormones stimulate body growth, particularly what system?
nervous system
skeletal system
Together with what two hormones do thyroid hormones stimulate body growth, particularly what system?
human growth hormone
insulin
What is produced by parafollicular cells of the thyroid?
calcitonin (CT)
What decreases the level of calcium in the blood by inhibiting the action of osteoclasts?
calcitonin (CT)
What are the cells that break down bone?
osteoclasts
What are small round masses of glandular tissue that are partially embedded in the posterior surface of the thyroid gland?
parathyroid gland
Within the parathyroid gland, what are the secretory cells that release parathyroid hormone (PTH)?
chief cells
What is the major regulator of the levels of calcium, magnesium, and phosphate ions in the blood?
parathyroid hormone (PTH)
What increases the number and activity of osteoclasts, which break down bone extracellular matrix and releases calcium and phosphate into the blood?
parathyroid hormone (PTH)
Parathyroid hormone (PTH) produces what three changes in the kidneys?
- slows the rate at which calcium and magnesium are lost from blood into urine
- increases loss of phosphate from blood to urine
- promotes the formation of the hormone calcitrol
What is the active form of vitamin D?
calcitrol
What acts of the gut to increase the rate of calcium, magnesium, and phosphate absorption from food into the blood?
calcitrol
What can cause bone pain, kidney stones, HA, and abdominal pain?
elevated levels of parathyroid hormone (PTH)
What can cause carpopedal spasms, abdominal cramps, and muscle cramps?
low levels of parathyroid hormone (PTH)
What is the flattened organ located in the curve of the duodenum (first part of the small intestine) and has both endocrine and exocrine functions?
pancreas
What are the cells of the pancreatic islet?
alpha cells
beta cells
What cells secrete the hormone glucagon?
alpha cells
What cells secrete the hormone insulin?
beta cells
Release of what cells is stimulated by the sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system (ANS)?
alpha cells
What hormones main action is to increase blood glucose levels when it falls below normal?
glucagon
What helps move glucose into cells, especially muscle fibers, which lower blood glucose levels when it is too high?
insulin
What controls secretion of both glucagon and insulin via negative feedback?
levels of blood glucose
What promotes the uptake of amino acids into the body cells and increases the synthesis of proteins and fatty acid within the cells?
insulin
What is an important hormone when tissues are developing, growing and being repaired?
insulin
What are the two glands are on top of each kidney and has regions that produce different hormones?
adrenal glands
What consists of three zones, each of which synthesizes and secretes different steroid hormones?
adrenal cortex
What zone of the adrenal cortex releases hormones called mineral corticoids because of their effect on mineral homeostasis?
the outer zone (zona glomerulosa)
What zone of the adrenal cortex releases hormones called glucocorticoids because they affect glucose homeostasis?
the middle zone (zona fasciculata)
What zone of the adrenal cortex releases androgens (male and female sex hormones)
the inner zone (zona reticularis)
What zone of the adrenal cortex releases aldosterone?
the outer zone (zona glomerulosa)
What zone of the adrenal cortex releases cotisol?
the middle zone (zona fasciculata)
What is the inner most region of the adrenal gland, consists of sympathetic postganglionic cells of the autonomic nervous system that are specialized to secrete hormones known as catecholamines?
adrenal medulla
Where is epinephrine and norepinephrine released?
adrenal medulla
What is the major mineral corticoid?
aldosterone
What regulates hemostasis of two mineral ions, sodium (Na+) and potassium ions (K+)?
aldosterone
What increases reabsorption of Ma+ from the urine into the blood?
aldosterone
What helps adjust blood pressure and blood volume and promotes excretion of H+ in the urine? this removal of acids from the body can help prevent metabolic acidosis?
aldosterone
What occurs as part of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone pathway?
secretion of aldosterone
What conditions initiate the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone pathway?
- dehydration
- Na+ dehydration
- hemorrhage
conditions that decrease blood volume and blood pressure
Lowered blood pressure stimulates the kidney to secrete what enzyme?
renin
Renin promotes a reaction in the blood that from what?
angiotensin I
As blood flows through the lungs what enzyme converts inactive angiotensin I into the active hormone angiotensin II?
angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE)
What stimulates the adrenal cortex to secrete aldosterone?
angiotensin II
What promotes the return of Na+ and water to the blood? increasing blood volume/pressure
aldosterone
What is the most abundant glucocorticoid?
cortisol
What are the actions of glucocorticoid?
- protein breakdown
- glucose formation
- breakdown of triglycerides
- anti-inflammatory effects
- depression of immune system
a low blood level of cortisol stimulates neurosecretory cells in the hypothalamus to secrete what?
corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH)
Corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) stimulates the posterior pituitary gland to secrete what?
adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) stimulates cells of the adrenal cortex to secrete what?
cortisol
What zone of the adrenal cortex secretes small amounts of weak androgens?
zona reticularis
What zone of the adrenal cortex produces glucocorticoids?
zona fascicula
What zone of the adrenal cortex produces mineral corticoids like aldosterone?
zona glomerulsa
In what sex does adrenal androgen play an important role?
female
After menopause, all female estrogen comes from where?
conversion of adrenal androgen?
In females what contributes to libido and are converted into estrogen by other body tissues?
adrenal androgens
What secretes small amounts of weak androgens in males?
adrenal cortex
What stimulates axillary and pubic hair growth in boys and girls and contributes to the growth spurt before puberty?
androgens secreted by the adrenal cortex
What is secreted by the anterior pituitary to stimulate androgen secretion from the adrenal cortex?
adrencocorticotopic hormone (ACTH)
During stressful situations and exercise impulses from the hypothalamus stimulate the sympathetic preganglionic neurons, which in turn stimulate the cells of the adrenal medulla to secrete what?
epinephrine and norepinephrine
What two hormones greatly augment the flight or flight response? and where do they come from?
epinephrin and norepinephrine from the adrenal cortex
How does epinephrine and norepinephrine increase the pumping output of the heart, which increase blood pressure?
by increasing heart rate and force of contraction
What increases blood flow to the heart, liver, skeletal muscles, and adipose tissue? under stress or excercise
- epinephrine
- norepinephrine
What dilate the airways to the lungs and increases blood levels of glucose and fatty acid? under stress or exercise
- epinephrine
- norepinephrine
What helps the body resist stress?
- epinephrine
- norepinephrine
What dilate the airways to the lungs and increases blood levels of glucose and fatty acid? under stress or exercise
- epinephrine
- norepinephrine
What are the organs that produce gamets?
gonads
What are the two types of gamets?
- sperm
- oocytes
What are the female gonads?
ovaries
What are paired oval bodies located in the pelvic cavity?
ovaries
What female sex hormones do the ovaries produce?
- estrogen
- progesterone
What regulates the menstrual cycle, maintains pregnancy, and prepare the mammary glands for lactations? Also helps maintain feminine body shape.
the female sex hormones estrogen and progesterone along with FSH and LH
The ovaries produce what is a protein hormone that inhibits the secretion of follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)?
inhibin
During pregnancy, the ovaries and placenta produce a peptide hormone called ___________ which increases the flexibility of the pubic symphysis and helps dilate the uterine cervix during labor and delivery?
relaxin
What are the oval shaped gland that lie in the scrotum?
testes
What are the male gonads?
testes
The testes produce the primary androgen for males called?
testosterone
What regulates the production of sperm and stimulates the development and maintenance of masculine characteristics such as beard growth and deepening of the voice?
testosterone
How do the testes inhibit the secretion of FSH thus affecting spermatogenesis?
Sertoli cells produce inhibin
What is the small endocrine gland attached to the roof of the third ventricle of the brain at the midline?
pineal gland
What hormone secreted by the pineal gland contributes to setting the body’s biological clock (circadian rhythm)?
melatonin
What is one cause of muscle atrophy as we age?
human growth hormone decreases
As we age what causes decreased metabolic rate, increased body fat, and hypothyroidism
thyroid hormones
- T3
- T4
- calcitonin
As we age what causes blood glucose levels to increase faster?
insulin is released more slowly
As we age what causes the ovaries to decrease in size, they no longer respond to gonadotropins. Leading to conditions such as osteoporosis, high blood cholesterol, and atherosclerosis?
estrogen decreases
What is any stimulus that produces a stress response?
stressor
What is a sequence of bodily changes that can progress through stages?
stress response
What are some examples of stressors?
- heat or cold
- environmental poisons
- toxins given off by bacteria
- heavy bleeding from a wound or surgery
- strong emotional reaction
What may be pleasant or unpleasant and they vary among people and even within the same person at different times?
stressor
What is the first stage of stress response?
flight-ot-flight response
What is the second stage of stress response?
a slower resistance reaction
What is the third stage of stress response?
exhaustion
The first stage of stress response is initiated by nerve impulses from the __________ to the sympathetic division of the ___________ including the __________ , quickly mobilizes the body’s resource for immediate physical activity?
- hypothalamus
- autonomic nervous system (ANS)
- adrenal medulla
The first stage of stress response brings huge amounts of ___________ and __________ to organs that are most active in warding off danger such as?
- glucose
- oxygen
- brain, skeletal muscles, heart
How do the kidneys react during the first stage of stress response?
- blood flow is reduced in the kidneys
- promotes the release of rennin activating rennin-angiotensin-aldosterone pathway to increase water retention which helps preserve body fluid volume in severe bleeding?
What stress response stage is initiated in large by the hypothalamic releasing hormones and is a longer-lasting response?
second stage
What hormones are involved in the second stage of stress response?
- corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH)
- growth hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH)
- thyrotropin-releasing hormone
What stimulates the anterior pituitary to secrete ACTH, which in turn stimulates the adrenal cortex to release more cortisol?
corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH)
What stimulates release of glucose by liver cells, breakdown of triglycerides into fatty acids, and catabolism or proteins into amino acids to produce ATP or repair damaged cells?
cortisol
- cortisol also reduces inflammation
What cause the anterior pituitary to secrete human growth hormone (hGH)?
growth hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH)
What stimulates the anterior pituitary to secrete thyroid stimulating hormone?
thyrotropin-releasing hormone
What stimulates the increased use of glucose for ATP production?
thyroif hormones promoted by TSH
The combined action of what two hormones supply additional ATP for metabolically active cells?
- hGH
- TSH
What helps the body continue fighting a stressor long after the fight-or-flight response dissipates?
resistance stage
What stage is generally successful in seeing us through a stressful episode, and our bodies return to normal?
resistance stage
What happens when the resourses of the body become so depleted that they cannot sustain the resitance stage?
third stage - exhaustion
Prolonged exposure to high levels of_________ involved in the resistance reaction causing wasting of muscles, suppression of the immune system, ulceration of the gastrointestinal tract, and failure of pancreatic beta cells?
cortisol and other hormones
People under stress are at greater risk for developing what?
- chronic disease
- dying prematurely
Release of what cells is stimulated by the parasympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system (ANS)?
beta cells
What is whipple’s triad used for?
essential diagnoses of hypoglycemia
What is whipple’s triad?
- blood glucose measure at <70mg/dl
- clinic syns and symptoms of hypoglycemia
- clinical signs and symptoms resolve with appropriate glucose elevation
What are clinical signs and symptoms of hypoglycemia?
- confusion
- irritability
- fatigue
- anxiety
- sweating
- irregular heart rhythm
- perioral paresthesia
Symptoms of hypoglycemia begin at what plasma glucose levels?
60 mg/dL
What plasma glucose levels range is where impairment of brain function may appear?
50 mg/dL
What are the two pricipal types of spontaneous hypoglycemia?
- fasting
- postprandial
What type of hypoglycemia is often subacute or chronic and usually presents with neuroglycopenia as its principal manifestation?
fasting
What are the two types of fasting hypoglycemia?
- subacute
- chronic
What type of hypoglycemia is relatively acute and is often heralded by symptoms of neurogenic autonomic discharge (sweating, palpitations, anxiety, tremulousness). Normally seen in patients with gastric/gastrointestinal surgery?
postprandial
What is the main energy source for the CNS?
glucose
With a decline in serum sugar, the brain quickly exhaust its reserve supply of carbohydrate fuel, resulting in?
CNS dysfunction
The clinical manifestation of hypoglycemia are divided into what two broad catagories?
- neuroglycopenic
- sympathomimetic
What type of clinical manifestation of hypoglycemia manifest most commonly by alterations in consciousness, lethargy, confusion, combativeness, agitation, and unresponsiveness, seizures, and focal neurological deficits?
neuroglycopenic
What type of clinical manifestation of hypoglycemia manifest with symptoms of anxiety, nervousness, irritability, nausea, vomiting, palpitations, and tremors?
sympathomimetic
Finger stick measurments are technique dependent, the most accurate way to asses glucose is?
laboratory measurments
What labs should be ordered for suspicion of autoimmune disorder?
serum antibody testing
- GAD-65
- anti-islet cell
- anti-insulin antibodies
what labs should be ordered for considering surreptitious cause?
- C peptide
- serial/glucose/insulin levels
- serum sulfonylurea
