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11 Bio- Cells, Microbes and Immunity > End of semester Exam > Flashcards

End of semester Exam Flashcards

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1
Q

What is inflammation?

A

Inflammation is our bodies immune response to injury or infection. It incorporates the inflammatory response to help heal your body.

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2
Q

What is an antigen?

A

A toxin or other foreign substance which induces an immune response in the body, especially the production of antibodies. Any molecule that can be identified as foreign (nonself).

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3
Q

What is a pathogen?

A

A pathogen is a microbe that specifically causes disease, sometimes called infectious agents.

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4
Q

What is a microbe?

A

A microbe, or “microscopic organism,” is a living thing that is too small to be seen with the naked eye.

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5
Q

What is a germ?

A

The term “germs” refers to the microscopic bacteria, viruses, fungi, and protozoa that can cause disease.

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6
Q

Infectious diseases vs non-infectious diseases?

A

An infectious disease can be spread between organisms, where as a non-infectious disease can’t be spread between organisms?

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7
Q

Examples of infectious vs non-infectious diseases?

A

Infectious: Cold, influenza, COVID, AIDS, HIV.
Non-infectious: Cancer, heart disease, diabetes.

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8
Q

What is a disease?

A

a disorder of structure or function in a human, animal, or plant, especially one that has a known cause and a distinctive group of symptoms, signs, or anatomical changes.

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9
Q

What is a symptom?

A

Something that a patient feels that may indicate they have a disease or condition. It can only be reported by the patient.

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10
Q

Define prognosis?

A

The course of the disease, the likely outcome, reoccurrence or chance of recovery.

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11
Q

What is the innate immune system response?

A

The innate immune system provides an immediate (fast response) defence against infections. It is found in all plants and animals.

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12
Q

What processes does the innate immune response use?

A

Phagocytosis - using phagocytes
The inflammatory process

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13
Q

State how macrophages work within the innate immune response:

A

Not specific, macrophages engluf a wide variety of foreign bodies. All macrophages posess a common set of different receptors that recognise a range of foreign bodies.

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14
Q

How effecfective are phagocytes?

A

Phagocytes do not provide long lasting immunity to the host, they are not as effective on their own to kill serious infections. Most pathogens have evolved ways to escape the phagocytes.

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15
Q

What is the process in which a macrophage can remove pathogens from the body? (phagocytosis)

A

Macrophages recognise the antigens of a bacterium (foreign body). They then engulf the bacteria through phagocyosis into a vesicle. This vesicle fuses with a lysosome which contains enzymes that break down the bacteria. The remains of the digested bacteria leave through exocytosis.

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16
Q

What is an antibody?

A

An antibody is a blood protein produced in response to and counteracting a specific antigen. Antibodies combine chemically with substances which the body recognizes as alien, such as bacteria, viruses, and foreign substances in the blood.

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17
Q

What are B-cells (b-lymphocytes)?

A

Made in the bone barrow and responsible for producing antibodies. When they encounter another cell presenting a pathogen (phagocyte) they differentiate and divide into two subsets plasma and memory cells.

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17
Q

What is the Major-Histo Compatability complex?

A

The major-Histo compatability complex is a set of protein markers found on the surface of cells. These proteteins are coded by a set of genes that are unique for all individuals.

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17
Q

What are the two different groups displayed by the Histo-compatability Markers?

A

-‘Self’ proteeins are unique and coded for the individual
-Short sections of protein antigens from pathogens. Reffered to as non-self. Important in the adaptive immune response

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17
Q

What are the two categories of white blood cells called lymphocytes?

A

B cells and T cells

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18
Q

Where do white blood cells come from?

A

Bone marrow

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19
Q

Where do B cells remain to mature and develop?

A

The bone marrow

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20
Q

How does the humoral immunity target pathogens?

A

The humoral response sends out antibodies produced by white blood cells, through the blood and lymph.

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21
Q

Why do vaccinations work?

A

Humour immunity.

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22
Q

What is the structure of a B.lymphocyte.

A

A B-lymphocyte is a special white blood cell which has developed which has displayed thousands of protein receptors on its surface. These are ready to identify and bind to a particular antigen.

23
Q

What happens when a B Cell comes into contact with the particular antigen?

A

The cell starts cloning rapidly, with the antibodies required to fight the specific pathogen.

24
Q

What are the 2 types of produced B cells when it comes into contact with a pathogen?

A

Memory cells and Effector Cells.

25
Q

What are the effector cells?

A

The effector cells mass produce antibodies to fight the infection. Antibodies can physically neutralise pathogens by blocking them attaching to your cells. Then macrophages can come and gobble them up.

26
Q

How do babies passively aquire immunity?

A

Babies can passively aquire antibodies through the placenta or through breastmilk. However this does not last for very long. Adults can be transplanted antibodies from other patients blood samples.

27
Q

What is the cell-mediated response?

A

The cell mediated response occurs after the first protections such as your skin and mucous membranes fail. The humoural response is unnefective, the pathogens have now broken into the cells where the antibodies can’t reach them. it involves your T-lymphocytes/T cells.

28
Q

What do t-cells cause?

A

T-cells can cause inflammation, activate macrophages, and get other T-cells fired up.

29
Q

Where are helper T-cells produced?

A

T-cells are produced in the bone marrow, but they develop in the Thymus. T in T-cell stands for Thymus. Helper T-cells can call other cells to kill the marked cell.

30
Q

What happens when the T-cell bonds to a pathogen.

A

They come to inspect B- cells which have displayed proteins on their outside. If it non-self it will start destroying the cell. Calling in cells to kill it. The T-cell starts to reproduce into helper T-cells and cytotoxic T-cells.

31
Q

What are B- cells?

A

B-cells produce antibodies to fight bacteria and viruses. These antibodies are Y-shaped proteins that are specific to each pathogen and are able to lock onto the surface of an invading cell and mark it for destruction by other immune cells.

32
Q

What are t-cells?

A

Helper T-cells stimulate B-cells to make antibodies and help killer cells develop.

Killer T-cells or cytotoxic T-cells directly kill cells that have already been infected by a foreign invader.

33
Q

What are the different modes of disease transmission?

A

Droplet infection. Through coughing or sneezing. Direct contact can transmit pathogenic organisms from person to person. Sexually transmitted diseases. Faeces= water. Contaminated food can cause spoilage and there is a risk of ingesting pathogens. Animals can spread pathogens with humans. Bodily fluids such as blood, and sexual fluids.

34
Q

What is the body’s immune system?

A

The body’s immune system is the body’s defence system used to protect the organism against pathogens. Lines of defence fall into 3 categories. First line of defence, Second line of defene and the third lines of defence.

35
Q

What characterises the first line of defence?

A

The first line of defence refers to the physical barriers that traps and prevent entry of pathogens.

36
Q

What characerises the second line of defence?

A

The second line of defence refers to the non-specific actions and respones.

37
Q

What is the third line of defence reffering to?

A

The third line of defence refers to adaptive immune response. Considering both the humoral response and the cell - mediated response.

38
Q

How does the skin and wounds protect the body against pathogens?

A

The skin secrets antimicrobial substances such as dermacidin which can kill microbes. If a wound opens up, platelets initiate a clotting process to seal the point of entry for pathogens.

39
Q

Coughing and sneezing reflexes (first line of defence).

A

Coughing and sneezing reflexes are brought about by either mechanical or chemical stimuli.

40
Q

Mechanical protections in the eyes? (first line of defence)

A

Blinking, the cornea is a barrier. Tears are produced in the gland above the eye and provide mechanical protection.

41
Q

Chemical protection in the eye?

A

Cells in the eye secrete an enzyme called lysozyme which has the ability to destroy cell walls.

42
Q

How do earwax and mucus protect the body? (first line of defence)

A

Earwax is secreted as a range of antimicrobial chemicals to protect the ear. Mucus is a secretion found in the respiratory system, digestive system and genitals.

43
Q

Is snake antivenom passive or active immunity?

A

An injection of antivenom is an example of passive immunity. It is fast acting and antibodies are injected into the blood stream. It is not active because your own immune system is not producing antibodies through your own plasma cells. Another source of antibodies is just being injected.

44
Q

Summarise the main roles performed by the B lymphocytes and T lymphocytes in the adaptive immune response?

A

-B cells release a specific protein antibody that can bind to the specific antigen that is associated with the pathogen/
-T cells have a few different types but generally this is direct cell action, releasing chemicals that punch holes in the infected cells.

45
Q

Explain the role of the Multi histocompatibility complex in the recognition of pathogens?

A

The multi histocompatibility complex displays antigens on the surface of the cells and this display enables other cells of the immune system to bind to them.

46
Q

Difference between active and passive immunity?

A

Active immunity stimulates B and T lymphocytes either naturally or artificilly. Whereas passive immunity does not activate lymphocytes, only an injection of antibodies.

47
Q

Why may a booster vaccination be required over time to maintain an effective secondary response?

A

A booster vaccination may be required because over long periods of time the memory cells may die. THe booster stimulates them to be produced incase of an infection.

48
Q

Differences between the primary and secondary response?

A

The primary response is much slower, produces less antibodies.
The secondary response os quicker and widespread.

49
Q

Where are memory T and B cells stored?

A

In the secondary lymph organs.

50
Q

Why would vaccination for a snake bite take too long? What is the best treatment for a snake bite?

A

Vaccination for snake bite would involve the a lymphocyte response, which would take too much time. Whereass a passive approach of injecting antibodies is much quicker and will save the persons life.

51
Q

What are the jobs of the Helper T cells?

A

Activate killer t cells, provide memory cells with exposure to the antigen. Activate B cells which secrete antibodies.

52
Q

Benefits of the adaptive immune system vs the innate immune system?

A

The innate immune system is non-specific, rapid non-learned response. Same response every time.

The adaptive immune system is a slower response, targeded, and can become more efficient with each exposure.

53
Q

What is a cytokine?

A

A cell signalling molecule that guides other responses.

54
Q

Natural killer cells, what are they, which response?

A

A natural killer cell is involved in recognising markers on non-self cells that need to be destroyed. Releases cytokines, punches holes through non-self cells.

55
Q

Signs of an infammatory response:

A

Swelling, redness, pain and heat at the site of infection.

56
Q

Why does pus appear at wounds?

A

Pus consists of dead pathogens, dead white cells and cellular debris. Result of neutralphils and phagocytes.

57
Q

Why do antibodies from passive immunity not last very long?

A

The greatest downside to passive immunity is that these antibodies don’t stay in the body for very long. Because your body isn’t continually reacting to specific pathogens, the antibodies that fight them will die off without restockin

58
Q

What is the best surface area to volume ratio for cells? Why?

A

Cells need to have a large surface to area volume ratio, therefore they remain small. This is to maximise their exchange of materials.

59
Q

2 types of t cells?

A

Ki

11 Bio- Cells, Microbes and Immunity (3 decks)

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