EMPIRE IN THE INTERWAR YEARS Flashcards
diplomatic, economic, popular culture
what types of challenges to empire did Britain face in the interwar years
- political challenges to empire (nationalism)
- economic challenges to empire (trade and commerce)
- a lack of home support for empire?
- diplomatic challenges over british world power
how did india economically challenge Britain in the interwar years
- 1938, exchequer was responsible for meeting the cost of Indian army campaigns, leaving Britain with a debt of 13,000 million pounds to India
- 1924 - gandhi establishes the all indian spinners association to promote economic self reliance and satyagraha
- Gandhi’s Salt March 1931(nationalist boycotts which had vast economic impacts)
economic impact of WWI on britain
- britain was taken off the gold standard, returns in 1925, leaves again in 1931 - no continuity
- WWI cost around 35,000 million pounds - 13x SBW
- britain borrows $4 billion from the USA
- britain became too focused on the production of wartime goods, international competitors begin to take over with production of domestic goods
- britain is taking in 1100 million worth of imports, compared with 700 million pre-war (no trade balance
economic impact of WWI on colonies:
1. india
2. canada
3. australia and NZ
india:
- india contributed $146 million to WWI, and faced inflation and food shortages - montagu
- taxation in india increases by 16%
- british place taxes on indian imports, from 11% in 1917 to 25% in 1931 (protectionism)
canada:
- canada develops trading relationships with the USA (ie halibut fisheries 1923)
aus + NZ:
- were previously used for the supply of goods and food
which markets did the british lose after WWI
- britain loses textile markets in japan
- britain also loses shipbuilding, steel and iron markets
describe the 1922-1923 geddes axe
- defence expenditure fell from 189.5 million in 1922 to 111 million in 1923, and the cabinet made expenditure savings worth 52 million
- active attempt by the government to halt economic spending
describe the 1929 colonial development and welfare act + who drove this
was driven by amery
- aimed to improve socio-economic conditions in colonies in response to the wall street crash and WWI
- it displays how britain took a more interventionist approach to economic and social matters in colonies
- initially allocated 1 million pounds
describe the 1932 ottowa conference / its aims
- an imperial conference which promoted the idea of imperial sufficiency, insulation and inter-dependency
- it was to counteract the impacts of the 1929 + 1932 great depression and wall street crash + limit their impact on empire
- it wanted empire to have cohesive economic policies to form an insulated bubble
- restore the notion of being in empire is a ‘privilege’ - wanted to reassert positive interpretations to empire
- british introduce a 10% tax on all imports, colonies were exempted
- britain and dominions give one another preferential treatment in markets (IMPERIAL PREFERENCE) - bilateral trade
- wanted to display that empire was profitable / worth the investment
- create an economic community
key examples of the 1929 colonial development and welfare acts failing
- only 1 million pounds was given in the first 3 years by 1932 - britain could not fulfill economic promises
- only 10-15% of kenyan children attended schools - lack of infrastructure growth
economic impacts of the ottowa conference (british imports + exports)
imports:
1. britain’s imports from dominions+ empire increase from 24% in 1931 to 37% in 1937%
exports:
1. britain’s exports to empire increase from 32% in 1931 to 39% in 1937
give the value of british imports from empire from 1913-1934
1913 = 191 million
1934 = 257 million
what goods or materials from empire into britain increased in value
cocoa = 1913 = 50.9% of cocoa from empire, by 1934 = 90%
raw rubber 1913 = 57% of rubber from empire, by 1934 = 79%
examples of colony contributions to WWI (ie manpower)
- 200,000 troops in mesopotamia, over 120,000 of whom were Indian, 102,000 were british (reliance on colonial fighters)
- 2.5 million soliders fight for britain
- 330,000 Chinese, Africans and Egyptians solely in France
- 60,000 indians died (more than any other colony)
territorial gains of WWI for british
- British gained 1.8 million square miles, 13 million new subjects
- British gain territories in the Middle East, including mandates of Palestine, Transjordan, Iraq, Cameroon etc
- By WWII, the empire comprised 1/4 of the world’s territory and population
- gained under LoN + versailles
*britain is spreading themselves too thin
examples of British empire economically strengthening in interwar years
ECONOMICALLY:
- imports from Asia, Africa and Australia doubled in value between 1915 and 1920, and tripled in Canada
- established the Empire Resources Development Committee in 1916 to make appropriate economic decisions
- 1932 Ottowa Conference which enforced imperial preference
- in 1929, Britain took 38% of australian imports, but 56% in 1938
- Britain maintained to command 1/3 of world trade
- The Reciprocal Free Trade Agreement Act of 1934 halted the ability of America to challenge the power of Britain
- construction of Haifa Harbour in Palestine
- production of British West African Cocoa increased from 144,000 metric tonnes in 1920 to 240,000 metric tonnes in 1930
examples of empire weakening in terms of manpower in interwar years
- 1/5th of the british merchant fleet was laid up in the 1920’s
examples of empire economically weakening in interwar years
ECONOMIC:
- consumption of British imports went to 1,161 million from 1915 to 1919, from 714 million 5 years before - more consumption = economic pressure
- british share of world trade due to empire decreased from 52% in 1913 to 26% in 1939
- invisible industries fell back, and large British shares in railways and shipping were reduced and unprofitable
- prices for British west african cocoa decreased from 81 shillings in 1920 to 37 shillings in 1930
examples of empire politically weakening in interwar years
POLITICAL:
- 1917 to 1918 canadian conscription crisis under the Military Service Act - discontent - lack of choice
- Amery cannot recieve funding to invest into political projects in colonies and maintain a consistent British presence
what was the balfour declaration & impact of the balfour declaration on the middle east
1917
- Balfour sends a letter to Rothschild which promised a ‘national homeland’ for Jews in Palestine, and allied Britain with the Zionist movement
- although, rights of arabs needed to be protected, and arabs would continue to live in the same way (which immigration and zionist violence did not fulfill)
impact:
- the population of Jews in Palestine increased from 60,000 in 1918 to 175,000 by 1931
- led to a 1918 = a Zionist commission, but this caused increasing resentment among Muslims and Arabs, leading to the Muslim Christian Association + constant fighting
how did Britain itself weaken in the interwar years, economically
- index of all exports by volume decreased from 173 in 1913 to 119 in 1922
- 1929 Wall Street Crash
- Britain imposed tarrifs on goods, which declined the value of its goods by 9-10% in the Import Duties Act of 1932
- 1920’s = 1/5th of merchant fleet were laid off
example of Britain itself weakening in the interwar years, politically
- 1921 Washington Naval Treaty, Britain comes off the double standard of Naval supremacy
- 1931 Statute of Westminster - concede overarching legislative power
- 1926 Balfour Definition
examples of the US threatening Britain during the interwar years
- the value of US exports to Britain tripled
- 1921 Washington Naval Conference forces Britain to abandon its double standard naval position, and has the same ratio of naval ships as the US
- in 1919 America and Mexico were making 7.5m barrels of oil, in 1934, they were making 57 barrells
how may morale have empire improved during the interwar years
- 1916 establishment of Empire day
- 1924 Wembley Exhibition, mirrors the 1890 Africa Exhibition in London
details of Amritsar Massacre and the consequences
- protest outside Irving’s house to demand the release of popular leaders of the Indian Independence Movement - these included leaders such as Satyapal
- a military picket shot at the crowd, causing an escalation in violence
CONSEQUENCES:
- 1516 people died and injured
- the 1919 and 1915 repressive WWI Acts were repealed (defence of India act 1915, and Rowlatt Acts 1919)
- leads to the Hunter Inquiry into Dyer
- passing of the 1919 Government of India Act
describe the 3 treaties in which britain politically weakens itself
- 1923 Halibut Fisheries Treaty
- canadian government is given the power to negotiate an international agreement with the USA
- idea of setting a precedent and establishes foreign policy independence
- 1924 Treaty of Lausanne
- response to chenak in 1922
- Irish Free State and Canada condemn the treaty to settle relations with turkey and refuse to become involved in the treaty - undermines the overarching power of the British
- no binding foreign policy power - 1925 Treaty of Locarno
- was to guarantee the frontiers of germany
- claimed that the dominions would not need to become involved in European affairs if they did not want to
*empire is no longer indivisible, no unified foreign policy, not a united diplomatic unit
when did Australia, SA and NZ adopt the Statute of Westminster
Aus: 1942
SA: 1934
NZ: 1947
*NI in 1937
examples of Britain continuing to promote a civilising mission during the war
- 1927 Colonial Medical Research Centre
- 1929 Colonial Development Act
examples of British relations with its colonial subjects declining
-
how was the US not threatening the British position during the interwar period
1933 - Roca RUNCIMAN treaty which protected argentinian produce of beef into british goods, of which up to 1914, Canada was supplying 15% of
- reciprocal trade treaty in 1934
- 1929 wall street crash and great depression forces the US to prioritise these matters - focus on domestic policy
- Britain still conduced a 1/3 of world trade
monarchy attitudes to empire and evidence
- paternalistic and interconnected view of empire
- surface level appreciation and gratitude, internal ungrateful attitudes, referring to empire as “rotten” and dismissive of culture, calling native people’s “the nearest thing to monkeys”
- felt that the monarchy should still be on a pedestal
- they realised the empire rested on the monarchy, so they were forced to adopt this stance
- diminishing attitude toward empire
EXAMPLES:
- 1932 - king provides his first annual xmas day address
- 1917 - creation of the OBE - idea of a meritocracy and establishing loyalty toward empire
- 1919 - tour of dominions by Prince of Wales to thank members of such dominions for their contributions
- 1931, the King has tea with Gandhi
- Prince of Wales 1951 biography, describing natives as performing “stunts” with “weird noises”
politicians attitudes to empire in interwar years and evidence
- political attitudes to empire were extremely polarized, as a labour led government wanted to abolish empire day, yet the conservatives used empire day to galvanise support for themselves for the next election, and unite people under the banner of empire
- both labour and the conservatives wanted to present the empire as a co-operative association of nations
- violence between labour and the conservatives over the presence of empire in 1927, with labour threatening to take medals away for violence
- labour PM in 1924
- conservative PM in 1927 (when violence erupts)
- disparity over the maintenance of empire and the emphasis placed on it
EXAMPLES:
- 1924 Wembley exhibition - MacDonald was PM in this time (Labour)
- 1925 Milner’s imperial crudo which places emphasis on a civilising mission - conservative
- stance of appeasement toward Hitler
lower class liking and disliking the empire in interwar years
LOWER CLASS LIKING:
- wembley exhibition in 1924 - entrance was one shilling, equivalent to 6p now, making entrance affordable for workers
- 1935 silver jubilee of the king - idea of uniting empire and celebrating to portray this
LOWER CLASS NOT LIKING:
- 1926 General Strike against poor working conditions and wages, in which imperialism and foreign efforts were detracting away from labour workers and their efforts
- Communist power of Great Britain was founded in 1920, which condemned colonial workers etc
evidence of British strengthening empire in terms of civilising mission, resources etc
evidence of British not strengthening empire in terms of civilising mission, resources etc - look at amery reading
key facts about the 1924 Wembley Exhibition
- over 27 million tickets were sold in the first 2 years - this was over 50% of the British population
- over 660,000 people wanted imperial military tattoes
- the 1924 exhibition was attended by 4x as many people as in 1851
- the full exhibition cost over 11 million pounds
- king george canadian butter sculpture - glorifying the monarchy
economic attitudes to empire in interwar years and examples
- desperate for empire to provide and boost spending patterns, and create this environment of self sufficiency which was ruined after the war
- wanted to create the image of a cohesive economic union
- wanted to promote ideas of protectionism to create a sustainable empire and turn toward self sufficiency
- create the image of a strong, healthy and inter-dependent empire to reinforce the benefits of empire
- counteract any apathy toward empire
EXAMPLES:
- May 1926, formation of the Empire Marketing Board (under Amery) to encourage the consumption of goods from Empire
- formation of the Empire Xmas Pudding recipe, including Cloves from Zanzibar, currents from Australia, of which 15,000 copies were initially printed, later 20,000
- formation of the Co-operative Wholesale Society which linked imperial advertising and would market things including tea etc
- a report in june estimated over 10 million leaflets were issued by 1933
- cost the British taxpayer around 10,000 pounds
- 1932 Ottowa Conference
- spending on the marketing board was 35,000 pounds between 1926 and 1933
- for example, the calendar of fruits and veg of empire which sold over 180,000 copies in 1929
attitudes to empire: art and evidence showing this
- increasing presence of media, newspaper and pamphlets decreased the need for military style paintings
- the increasing education and enlightenment of individuals, and literacy rates improving meant that such paintings and their promotion of empire gained less traction among middle and lower classes
- lower enthusiasm for military pursuits
EXAMPLES:
- 1924, Emma Thompson’s paintings are rejected by the committee at the Royal Academy - she was a staunch supporter of Empire, and these paintings being rejected shows a decline in association with her ideas and the lack of influence - lack of demand to see her paintings, because her depiction of the heroism of her paintings couldn’t be resonated with any more
attitudes to empire through education and evidence showing this (empire day)
- vast enthusiasm and support for empire - ie ribbon wearing for empire day
- wide support among the young generation, a level of caution among older generations, but still widely supported
- people like Meath often supported the latter half of the day being used to educate individuals about their heritage and empire
- empire day was often associated with paying respects for individuals in the war - ideas of patriotism and respect
- empire day became an emblem which symbolised social cohesion and rememberance
- dislike among teachers of the glorification of empire
EXAMPLES:
- 24th May 1916 = establishment of Empire Day - concept of honouring empire
- ie in 1923, the names of men who died in the war were read out in Colchester
- 1919 creation of the Vere Harmsworth Chair at Cambridge, which were based around imperial history (esp of the British Empire)
- universities were used to train colonial subjects - ie SOAS was founded in 1917
- the emphasis on teaching works, for example by Kipling (a pro-imperialist)
- rememberance - ie 1000 pupils gathering at Daisy Street Schools in Kirkdale to remember those from the war
- in 1926, the British Empire Union ordered the production of 30,000 medals to be distributed to children in schools on empire day - glorification
- 1926 - Teacher Labour League advocated for the labour party to hold a conference in Margate to condemn the teaching of imperialistic values in schools- adopted in labour policy
attitudes to empire through literature and film and evidence showing this
- overarching allusion to these ideas of British superiority and power over natives and indigenous peoples
- support for the idea of governance and civilising mission
- however, there was more of an amplification of the hypocrisy of empire, and how it created relations which could not be repaired
EXAMPLES:
- 1934 - written by Waugh, called A Handful of Dust - overarching idea of British superiority, British being ‘too superior’ for the South African jungle, yet British troops lead native individuals - the British actively distance themselves from the idea of noble savages, and assert their superiority
- 1924 - Forster publishes A Passage to India which condemns the personal implications of imperialism - the book doesn’t show any objection to countries ruling one another
FILM:
- 1935 - Sanders of the River which presented Empire as a place of excitement, adventure etc
media attitudes to empire
- the media became a critical tool in amplifying approval and appreciation for empire
- overall, positive presentation of empire, given not only that the media was often government sponsored, but those with access to TV media would be members of upper classes - thereby further shaping this approval and like of empire
- the use of media was to give an insight into aspects of empire - ie ‘life in the british west indies’
EXAMPLES:
- 1923 = the BBC is established
- BBC representatives were added to the Empire Marketing Board’s publicity committee
- BBC would also re-amplify the Xmas day speeches made by the King
- 1930 talk on ‘Why we Should Buy From Empire’
- talks by John Coatman on the Empire and its extensive links with Britain
- 1932 = the BBC launch the Empire Service Program to maintain pride toward Empire
- BBC was used to put ads of empire in football stadiums, news etc
catagorise positive and negative attitudes toward empire
POSITIVE:
- wembley exhibition - escape from wider issues
- education / empire day
- empire marketing board / economic
- media
NEGATIVE:
- monarchy
- literature
- art (ie people didn’t like empire)
give the other exhibitions hosted during the interwar period, aside from wembley
- 1927 Belfast Empire Week exhibition
- Glasgow 1938 Empire Exhibition which attracted over 12 million individuals
attitudes to empire through music and examples of this
bad attitudes = 1931, Noel Coward song of ‘Mad Dogs and Englishmen’ which mocked British ideas
good attitudes = 1924, Elgar performed songs including the ‘Pageant of Empire’ whilst performing the ‘Empire March’, displaying huge amounts of patriotism and pride
upper class liking and disliking the empire in interwar years
UPPER CLASS LIKING:
- dominance of the conservative party, ie baldwin etc
- media presence - state sponsored, often by conservatives (ie 1922 establishment of BBC under Bonar Law, conservative PM)
UPPER CLASS NOT LIKING:
- monarchy
- artwork - presence of the media
middle class liking and disliking the empire in interwar years
MIDDLE CLASS LIKING:
MIDDLE CLASS NOT LIKING:
domestic impact of WWI on britain
- look at sheet called domestic economic impacts
how did british trade with empire in the IW years decrease
- british trade and economic relationships with india were strained
- as indian manufacturers and suppliers grew increasingly close economic relationships with the japanese, not british (absorb less british exports)
- british lancashire cotton exports fell from 125 million in 1913 to 72 million by 1929
- 20% of british merchants were laid off
what happened to imports from asia and canada from 1915-1920
asia - they doubled in value from their value in 1910-1914
canada - they tripled in value
what institutions were created post WWI by the british government to stimulate the economy
1916 = empire resources development committee - investment and exploration of imperial resources
empire settlement committee = 1917 - passages of free service to other empire countries
imperial war cabinet 1917 - a closer economic and constitutional relationship?
how did other world powers cause british trade + commerce to suffer
- britain’s share of world trade decreases from 52% in 1913 to 40% by 1936
- impacts of the ottawa conference
- empire countries increase share of british imports by 10% - empire is importing into britain more
- but consumption of british exports only grows by 5%
disproportionately not benefitting
roca-runciman pact
1933
- britain diverging from what was agreed in the ottawa conference
- allowed argentina to keep its pre-ottawa share for chilled beef
- argentina sending 40% of its exports to britain
reciprocal free trade agreement act
1934
- america commits to free trade, but this act only limited progress
- america tries to counter-act british economic dominance, but fails
how did other world powers NOT cause british trade + commerce to suffer
- britain was still dictating a 1/3 of world trade
- london was still at the centre of commercial trade and banking
- active efforts by america to supercede this failed - britain formed an insular economic relationship
- through the ottawa conferece
give one example on both sides to display how britain’s financial relationship with empire improved and did not after ottawa
improve:
- total imports from empire increase from 26% in 1909-1913 to 41% in 1934
not improve:
- british exports to india and burma decrease from 11.9% 1909-1913 - 8% by 1934
*this would only be one example / a minority, general pattern is that trade improves
unemployment in britain post WWI
- racially motivated riots broke out in liverpool and london for non-white residents taking jobs
- in 1919 the overseas settlement committee was formed to promote migration and jobs in empire + deter unemployment
- 5000 white people initiated violence, 15 white people arrested
1922 empire settlement act
- 3 million pounds a year committed to empire migration and movement in empire for emplyoment
describe nationalist acts dominions and africa during WWI
canada:
- increasing discontent in quebec, led to 1918 anti-conscription riots
- 10,000 canadians die at vimy
australia:
- conscription was rejected in 1916 + 1917
south africa:
- hertzog starts a republican and afrikaner movement
- 1919 = south african delegates go to versailles
africa:
- 1919 pan-african conference (over 50,000 egyptians were killed in europe + 100,000 killed in tanganyika)
contributions of dominions and colonies in WWI
- conscription in new zealand in 1916 + canada in 1917 - want to help
- canada supplies britain with 1/3 ammunition used in france from 1917
- smuts - forms south african defence force
- 136,000 south african forces fight in the middle east
1915 sykes picot agreement
- british and french divide the middle east, given the hostilities in the area from WWI
- france would have south east turkey, north iraq, syria, lebanon
- britain would take palestine, jourdan and southern iraq
- it was a secret treaty - fuel discontent
describe the british gain of mandates post WWI
- britain introduced a 3 tier system for mandates, separating those which were almost independent, those who needed administrative help (tanganyika), and those that needed full intervention (samoa etc)
- independent mandates included palestine, mesopotamia etc
- the tier system they were placed in determined how much assistance they needed, and how long before independence would be promoted
british hesitations to palestine
- it was strategically critical, given access to suez and the rest of the middle east and asia
- but it was so politically hostile and easy to ignite nationalist sentiment (ie turkish resentment) that britain could not impose the rule they wanted
describe the statute of wesminster + significance
1931
- the british parliament could no longer legislate on behalf of a dominion, and if it did, would require the consent of that dominion
- effectively allows colonies to legislate themselves out of empire
- weakens british overarching legislative power
- equality of legislative status between britain and dominions
significance:
- CHANGING TO CONSERVE***
- maintain stability through change
- change relations + dynamic to keep them onside
- sets precedent for indi
balfour definition
1926
- defined what dominion status would mean and clarify the constitutional relationship between britain and dominions
- it was claimed dominions are equal in status and are united by allegiance to the crown
- this was mainly to pacify and appease the white dominion areas and elongate their relationship with empire, by appeasing south africa and ireland with ideas of autonomy, but pleasing australia with associations w the crown
what were the imperial conferences and describe the 1926 imperial conference
- a series of conferences from 1887 up until WWI
- they would address constitutional issues, and would clarify the relationship between britain and her territories
1926:
- this conference promoted south african nationalism, and was supported by the irish
- it was a conference between irish, white dominion states to clarity how a dominion could leave the commonwealth etc
- accepted the strength of dominions to be separate
- it would be impractical to try and drag colonies into such a mess
describe the main events leading up to WWII in europe
- 1935 = abyssinia
- south africa condemns british response (hertzog) - 1936 = sanctions for italy
- split between SA, NZ + British (not united) - appeasement by N chamberlain
- dominions don’t want association w british
- they wanted political peace - munich 1938
- dominions want appeasement for stability
- felt britain should not provoke anything - 1939 czechoslovakia
- dominions don’t want involvement bc britain will rely on them
- doms don’t want to fight hitler - austria in german reich
- smuts refuses to fight in europe
describe the wall street crash and great depression / impact on empire
1929+1932
- forces britain to pivot with how it wants to maintain economic bonds with empire (exports, imports - internal decline)
- trade slowed, lack of demand
- political instability between ramsay and conservatives
- burdonsome cost of maintaining empire (ie 1931 westminster - choose to leave if you want)
- britain tries to impose imperial preference
- displayed the lack of decisive power of britain, caused nationalism
- causes political split in empire, bc to fix it, britain wants free trade, but phillip snowden condemns this, whilst conservatives support this
