Emotion Citations

Question 1

Russell (1980)

Answer 1

Circumplex model of emotions – arousal (high/low) against valence (positive/valence). Can be modelled on human biology.

Question 2

Mehrabian & Russell (1974)

Answer 2

PAD model of emotions – pleasure, arousal dominance/submissive which accounts for fear vs anger etc. (unlike circumplex)

Question 3

Juslin et al. (2013)

Answer 3

BRECVEMA model of inducing musical emotions

Brain Stem Reflex
Rhythmic Entrainment
Evaluative conditioning 
Contagion
Visual Imagery 
Episodic Memory 
Musical Expectancy 
Aesthetic Judgement

Question 4

Menninghaus et al. (2019)

Answer 4

Aesthetic emotions as a valid emotion – idea that art can evoke emotions not purely through pleasure/displeasure but being able to appreciate objects through aesthetic qualities e.g. beauty, novelty, expression, goal oriented etc.

Question 5

Zetner et al. (2013)

Answer 5

Geneva Musical Emotions Scaele (GEMS)

Self-assesed, categorical way of viewing musical emotions. Hierarchical structure of levels.

Question 6

Boero and Bottoni (2008)

Answer 6

Discussion of how sound is useful to humans in general intrinsically and support for the idea of evolutionary utility of musical emotions

Question 7

Longhi (2008)

Answer 7

Musical expectancy is already experienced by young infants

Question 8

Lense et. al (2014) – Williams Syndrome study

Answer 8

Shows a connection between music and socioemotional processing, and an impact of musical emotions on WS for their perception of the valence of a prime.

Question 9

Konečni (1991) - The Prototypical Emotion-Episode Model (PEEM) Model

Answer 9

A way of examining M-E literature - A feedback loop that goes: Event, perception/interpretation, (arousal), emotion-labelling, behaviour - this then creates a new event etc.

Question 10

Koelsch (2015) - Music-evoked emotions: principles, brain correlates, and implications for therapy

Answer 10

Article demonstrating how unexpected events give rise to emotions - even when a piece has been heard multiple times

Question 11

Ian Cross (2012) - Music as an emergent exaptation

Answer 11

A response to Pinker, that music has a psychological AND social function, therefore coming together to perform or experience music can induce an emotion (this comes from the social function rather than the music itself.

Question 12

Bigand et al (1996)

Answer 12

“Auditory roughness is an important component of perceived tension”

Question 13

McAdams and Giordano (2016)

Answer 13

Introducing the possibility of timbre intervals

Question 14

Fenk-Oczlon (2017)

Answer 14

What Vowels Can Tell Us about the Evolution of Music
Role of vowels in the language-music relationship suggesting a shared heritage of music and speech

Vowels = key in sound/sonority of syllables, the main vehicles for transporting information in speech and singing
Timbre = primary parameter involved in discriminating between diff vowels (also have intrinsic pitch, intensity and duration)
Correspondences between number of vowels and number of pitches in musical scales across cultures
Evidence also for correspondence within cultures e.g. cultures with three vowels tend to have tritonic scales
Close relationship between vowels and music in non-Western cultures which may shed light on the earliest human vocal communication and may strengthen the idea of a musical protolanguage.

Question 15

Oxenham et. al (2004)

Answer 15

Research which shows the importance of tonotopic organisation in identification of fundamentals and sound identities. Used ‘transposed tones’ - temporal information of lower frequency sounds in areas of the cochlea tuned for higher frequencies - unable to identify fundamentals.

Question 16

McDermott et. al (2010)

Answer 16

Paper showing support for the harmonicity/periodicity theory of consonance:

Highlights
- Sounds with harmonic frequencies, and that lack beats, are preferred by listeners
- Only preference for harmonic spectra predicts preference for consonant chords
- Preferences for harmonic spectra, consonant chords correlate with musical experience
- Suggests harmonic frequency relations underlie perception of consonance
Summary:
Preferences for harmonicity correlated strongly with preferences for consonant versus dissonant musical intervals, whereas preferences for (or antipathy to) acoustic beats did not support a strong role for enculturation in consonance but indicate that rather than learning to find specific arbitrary chords pleasing, listeners learn to like a general acoustic property, that of harmonicity

Question 17

McDermott et. al (2016)

Answer 17

Research shows that many of our perceived consonances are not universal, studies with the Tsimane people. Showed aversion to roughness and minor 2nds however.

Question 18

Lahdelma et. al (2021)

Answer 18

Article studying UK v Pakistan perceptions of consonance found that remarkably the major/minor was the inverse for them where the minor 3rd much more present in their music, so firstly they associated it as more positive and secondly, when rating how pleasant each chord was, rating was minor-cluster-aug-maj (vs UK maj-min-aug-cluster).

Question 19

Gonzalez-Garcia et. al (2016)

Answer 19

Study indicates that singing dissonant intervals as opposed to consonant intervals led to an increase in activation of several regions (including the amygdala). Also suggests the possibility that dissonant intervals are intoned by adjusting the neural mechanisms used for the production of consonant intervals.
Idea of sensory consonance/dissonance - looking at consonance/dissonance without contextual positive/negative associations
Interesting that this looks at the production of consonance and dissonance