ELIN Citations Deck

Question 1

Savage et al. 2015

Answer 1

304 recordings coded from pre-existing worldwide data set
Coded into 32 statistical universals (definition=occurs 50% of time) which can be grouped into 6 categories: pitch, rhythm, form, instrumentation, performance style and social context
- however, there are 18 which truly passed the criteria for universals

Question 2

Mehr et al. (2019)

Answer 2

Cross cultural study with a focus on song
Utilised Bayesian Principal Component Analysis
Returned that the 3 main behavioural context for songs =
1. Formality
2. Arousal
3. Religiosity
Key finding = there is more variation within a given culture than cross-culturallyfocus in song

Question 3

Russel (1980)

Answer 3

Circumplex model of emotions – arousal (high/low) against valence (positive/valence). Can be modelled on human biology.

Question 4

Mehrabian & Russell (1974)

Answer 4

PAD model of emotions – pleasure, arousal dominance/submissive which accounts for fear vs anger etc. (unlike circumplex)

Question 5

Juslin et al. (2013)

Answer 5

BRECVEMA model of inducing musical emotions

Brain Stem Reflex
Rhythmic Entrainment
Evaluative conditioning
Contagion
Visual Imagery
Episodic Memory
Musical Expectancy
Aesthetic Judgement

Question 6

Menninghaus et al. (2019)

Answer 6

Aesthetic emotions as a valid emotion – idea that art can evoke emotions not purely through pleasure/displeasure but being able to appreciate objects through aesthetic qualities e.g. beauty, novelty, expression, goal oriented etc.

Question 7

Zetner et al. (2008)

Answer 7

Geneva Musical Emotions Scale (GEMS)

Self-assesed, categorical way of viewing musical emotions. Hierarchical structure of levels.

Question 8

Longhi (2008)

Answer 8

Musical expectancy is already experienced by young infants

Question 9

Koelsch (2015)

Answer 9

Article demonstrating how unexpected events give rise to emotions - even when a piece has been heard multiple times

Question 10

Ian Cross (2012)

Answer 10

A response to Pinker, that music has a psychological AND social function, therefore coming together to perform or experience music can induce an emotion (this comes from the social function rather than the music itself.

Question 11

Bigand et al (1996)

Answer 11

“Auditory roughness is an important component of perceived tension”

Question 12

Oxenham et. al (2004)

Answer 12

Research which shows the importance of tonotopic organisation in identification of fundamentals and sound identities. Used ‘transposed tones’ - temporal information of lower frequency sounds in areas of the cochlea tuned for higher frequencies - unable to identify fundamentals.

Question 13

McDermott et. al (2016)

Answer 13

Research shows that many of our perceived consonances are not universal, studies with the Tsimane people. Showed aversion to roughness and minor 2nds however.

Question 14

Sethares (2005)

Answer 14

Interference between partials holds true with different tone spectra analysis - when harmonics are stretched in a tone

Question 15

Chmiel & Schubert (2017)

Answer 15

Inverted U-model - enjoyment and exposure plotted on separate axis (repeated exposure leads to more enjoyment but either end less enjoyment)

Question 16

Bowling et. al (2017)

Answer 16

Refuting of McDermott et. al (2016)
- criticises the lack of discussion of similarity of tonal organisation across musical cultures
most frequently used intervals across a range of musical cultures = the 8ve, perf 5th and perf 4th (important as humans have the capacity to distinguish hundreds of unique intervals)

Question 17

Schellenberg & Trehub (1996)

Answer 17

Six-month-old infants (e.g.) exhibit greater sensitivity to changes in tuning applied to sequences of consonant as compared to dissonant intervals as well as greater attention, more positive affect, and reduced motoric activity.

Question 18

Richner (2016)

Answer 18

Male songbirds with larger black ventral ties (signal of social status and reproductive potential) sing with smaller deviations from small-integer ratios intervals than those with smaller ties. Suggest that melodic singing is evolutionary important in songbirds.

Question 19

McDermott et. al (2012)

Answer 19

Presented the same stimuli to participants with congenital amusia, a neurogenetic disorder causing deficits in melody processing. These listeners showed no preference for consonant over dissonant chords, but performed the same as a control group in the rating of roughness. This evidence suggests that although roughness is unpleasant for many listeners, its absence is not the basis of consonance.

Question 20

Cross (2003)

Answer 20

Music as a ‘biocultural phenomenom’ - Investigating whether consonance perception is biologically determined or shaped by culture is likely to be misleading, as it conceives enculturation as a non-biologically constrained process.

Question 21

Patel (2021)

Answer 21

Suggests that rhythmic perception is important in species that partake in vocal learning (studies with the zebra finches rhythmic identification of isochronous beats).
Linked with evidence that deficits in rhythm processing are linked to a number of childhood language disorders, including dyslexia, developmental language disorder, and stuttering.

Question 22

Huron & Vuoskoski (2020)

Answer 22

The pleasurable compassion theory: idea that through music we get pleasure from the feeling of compassion to the musical source.

Question 23

Savage et. al (2020)

Answer 23

Music’s evolutionary purpose is to aid social bonding.

• multiple individual relationships at once
• complex & collective behaviour practice
• feeling of part of a group
• potential explanation of ‘groove’ (group activity synchronised lead to pleasure)

Problem = why didn’t we learn to do this without music (if it’s so important)?

Question 24

Mehr et. al (2020)

Answer 24

Music evolving as a credible signal: territorial advertisement and contact calls.
credible signalling = a signal that is had to fake and thus compelling evidence for a state of affairs (e.g. pyramids)
- could be a symbol of group strength (e.g. Haka)
- could be a signal of parental attention

Question 25

Ekmann, 1999

What 4 things does he propose

Answer 25

He believes we should focus on core emotions

1. Distinctive universal signals – there function to communicate emotional state with conspecifics (should occur cross-culturally)
2. Distinctive physiological signature – e.g., heart rate
3. Have an automatic appraisal mechanism – emotion must be a spontaneous reaction to a situation
4. Must have universal antecedent events – same events should elicit same emotions cross culturally

Question 26

304 recordings coded from pre-existing worldwide data set
Coded into 32 statistical universals (definition=occurs 50% of time) which can be grouped into 6 categories: pitch, rhythm, form, instrumentation, performance style and social context
- however, there are 18 which truly passed the criteria for universals

Answer 26

Savage et al. 2015

Question 27

Cross cultural study with a focus on song
Utilised Bayesian Principal Component Analysis
Returned that the 3 main behavioural context for songs =
1. Formality
2. Arousal
3. Religiosity
Key finding = there is more variation within a given culture than cross-culturallyfocus in song

Answer 27

Mehr et al. (2019)

Question 28

Circumplex model of emotions – arousal (high/low) against valence (positive/valence). Can be modelled on human biology.

Answer 28

Russel (1980)

Question 29

PAD model of emotions – pleasure, arousal dominance/submissive which accounts for fear vs anger etc. (unlike circumplex)

Answer 29

Mehrabian & Russell (1974)

Question 30

BRECVEMA model of inducing musical emotions

Brain Stem Reflex
Rhythmic Entrainment
Evaluative conditioning
Contagion
Visual Imagery
Episodic Memory
Musical Expectancy
Aesthetic Judgement

Answer 30

Juslin et al. (2013)

Question 31

Aesthetic emotions as a valid emotion – idea that art can evoke emotions not purely through pleasure/displeasure but being able to appreciate objects through aesthetic qualities e.g. beauty, novelty, expression, goal oriented etc.

Answer 31

Menninghaus et al. (2019)

Question 32

Geneva Musical Emotions Scale (GEMS)

Self-assesed, categorical way of viewing musical emotions. Hierarchical structure of levels.

Answer 32

Zetner et al. (2008)

Question 33

Musical expectancy is already experienced by young infants

Answer 33

Longhi (2008)

Question 34

Article demonstrating how unexpected events give rise to emotions - even when a piece has been heard multiple times

Answer 34

Koelsch (2015)

Question 35

A response to Pinker, that music has a psychological AND social function, therefore coming together to perform or experience music can induce an emotion (this comes from the social function rather than the music itself.

Answer 35

Ian Cross (2012)

Question 36

“Auditory roughness is an important component of perceived tension”

Answer 36

Bigand et al (1996)

Question 37

Research which shows the importance of tonotopic organisation in identification of fundamentals and sound identities. Used ‘transposed tones’ - temporal information of lower frequency sounds in areas of the cochlea tuned for higher frequencies - unable to identify fundamentals.

Answer 37

Oxenham et. al (2004)

Question 38

Research shows that many of our perceived consonances are not universal, studies with the Tsimane people. Showed aversion to roughness and minor 2nds however.

Answer 38

McDermott et. al (2016)

Question 39

Interference between partials holds true with different tone spectra analysis - when harmonics are stretched in a tone

Answer 39

Sethares (2005)

Question 40

Inverted U-model - enjoyment and exposure plotted on separate axis (repeated exposure leads to more enjoyment but either end less enjoyment)

Answer 40

Chmiel & Schubert (2017)

Question 41

Refuting of McDermott et. al (2016)
- criticises the lack of discussion of similarity of tonal organisation across musical cultures
most frequently used intervals across a range of musical cultures = the 8ve, perf 5th and perf 4th (important as humans have the capacity to distinguish hundreds of unique intervals)

Answer 41

Bowling et. al (2017)

Question 42

Six-month-old infants (e.g.) exhibit greater sensitivity to changes in tuning applied to sequences of consonant as compared to dissonant intervals as well as greater attention, more positive affect, and reduced motoric activity.

Answer 42

Schellenberg & Trehub (1996)

Question 43

Male songbirds with larger black ventral ties (signal of social status and reproductive potential) sing with smaller deviations from small-integer ratios intervals than those with smaller ties. Suggest that melodic singing is evolutionary important in songbirds.

Answer 43

Richner (2016)

Question 44

Presented the same stimuli to participants with congenital amusia, a neurogenetic disorder causing deficits in melody processing. These listeners showed no preference for consonant over dissonant chords, but performed the same as a control group in the rating of roughness. This evidence suggests that although roughness is unpleasant for many listeners, its absence is not the basis of consonance.

Answer 44

McDermott et. al (2012)

Question 45

Music as a ‘biocultural phenomenom’ - Investigating whether consonance perception is biologically determined or shaped by culture is likely to be misleading, as it conceives enculturation as a non-biologically constrained process.

Answer 45

Cross (2003)

Question 46

Suggests that rhythmic perception is important in species that partake in vocal learning (studies with the zebra finches rhythmic identification of isochronous beats).
Linked with evidence that deficits in rhythm processing are linked to a number of childhood language disorders, including dyslexia, developmental language disorder, and stuttering.

Answer 46

Patel (2021)

Question 47

The pleasurable compassion theory: idea that through music we get pleasure from the feeling of compassion to the musical source.

Answer 47

Huron & Vuoskoski (2020)

Question 48

Music’s evolutionary purpose is to aid social bonding.

• multiple individual relationships at once
• complex & collective behaviour practice
• feeling of part of a group
• potential explanation of ‘groove’ (group activity synchronised lead to pleasure)

Problem = why didn’t we learn to do this without music (if it’s so important)?

Answer 48

Savage et. al (2020)

Question 49

Music evolving as a credible signal: territorial advertisement and contact calls.
credible signalling = a signal that is had to fake and thus compelling evidence for a state of affairs (e.g. pyramids)
- could be a symbol of group strength (e.g. Haka)
- could be a signal of parental attention

Answer 49

Mehr et. al (2020)

Question 50

He believes we should focus on core emotions

1. Distinctive universal signals – there function to communicate emotional state with conspecifics (should occur cross-culturally)
2. Distinctive physiological signature – e.g., heart rate
3. Have an automatic appraisal mechanism – emotion must be a spontaneous reaction to a situation
4. Must have universal antecedent events – same events should elicit same emotions cross culturally

Answer 50

Ekmann, 1999