Emmas questions

Question 1

Learning def… (x3)

Answer 1

Adaptive processPermanent-ish change in behaviour or potential behaviour resulting from practice/experienceLearning situation is important

Question 2

Habituation/sensitisation is… (x1)And involves… (x2)

Answer 2

Getting used to a novel stimulus, not a result of any associationsOrienting response - head turns toward stimulus. Prolonged exposure leads to lack of orienting response - stimulus has no positive/negative outcomes

Question 3

Three key scholars in associative learning, plus dates

Answer 3

Ivan Pavlov, 1849 - 1936John Watson, 1878 - 1958B F Skinner, 1904 - 1990

Question 4

Key principles of behavioural approach to associative learning (x4)

Answer 4

Measure behaviours, not thoughts, representations Infer learned association between stimulus/response Behaviour = organism, environmental demands, internal statesSimple behaviours follow same laws as complex, ie rats and humans = same processes

Question 5

Five changes in behaviours that don’t stem from associative learning (distinguishing learning from related phenomena)

Answer 5

Habituation Innate response tendencies (reflex, instinct)MaturationFatigueAny from physical/motivational state or evolution

Question 6

We learn basic principles of acquisition/maintenance of learned behaviours so that we can apply them to…

Answer 6

Behaviour modification

Question 7

Cognitive psych involves the study of…And defines psych as…Using methodology based on the…

Answer 7

Mental processes such as perceiving, attending, remembering, reasoningThe science of the mindScientific approach - data gathering through experimentation/observation, draw hypotheses, attempt to disprove

Question 8

Three key scholars on cognitive psych

Answer 8

Wilhelm Wundt (1879) introspection: first to call himself a psych; got students to report thoughts/internal states; introspection didn’t really catch on…Hermann Ebbinghaus (1885) empirical study of memory: taught himself lists of nonsense syllables, measured recall; found the ‘forgetting curve’William James (1890) and principles of psych: philosopher, observed own internal processes, analysed them; many ideas that are still useful

Question 9

Behaviourism rose out of introspection because of… (x4)

Answer 9

Lack of progress through introspection - honesty, accuracy issuesWatson = psych as objective study of behaviour not mind, parsimonious theoriesMetaphor of black box: environmental input, behavioural output can be measured, actions in the box can’tBelief in tabula rasa/blank slate rather than nativism/genetics dispositions

Question 10

Three issues of behavioural approach to learning

Answer 10

Can’t be tabula rasa - diff species have diff genetic predispositions that determine behaviourDoesn’t explain fixed-action patterns: stereotyped mating behaviour, nest building etcOr critical periods

Question 11

Cognition rose out of behaviourism, thanks to which researcher and which metaphor?

Answer 11

Chomsky: generatively of human language can’t be explained by itSerial processor/computer model: input, processor, output/storage (turned out to be parallel processor)

Question 12

Four approaches to the study of the mind

Answer 12

ExperimentsNeuroscientific investigations - imaging/recordingModeling - computer simsComparative - performance across age, clinical conditions, species groups

Question 13

Lower level cognitions are…And include… (x3)

Answer 13

Those that are close to the input from the sensesPerceptionAttentionMemory

Question 14

Higher level cognitions are…And include… (x3)

Answer 14

When input has been reprocessed by cognitive systemImageryLanguageIntelligence

Question 15

Modern view of the interaction between behavioural/cognitive approaches… (cognitivist and learning theorist views)

Answer 15

Learning theorists: appreciate biological constraints/preparedness; acknowledge utility of cognitive constructs in theory/practice eg cognitive-behavioural therapyCognitivists: see utility/power of learning principles; apply associationism in theories of the mind; research brain/cognition relationships (no more box/arrow models)

Question 16

Fourteen domains of cognitive psych are…

Answer 16

Cognitive neuropsychPerceptionPattern recognitionAttentionConsciousnessMemoryImagery and foresightRepresentation of knowledgeLanguageCognitive developmentThinkingIntelligenceComparative psychologyEvolutionary psychology

Question 17

What is meant by retrieval? (X2)

Answer 17

Using provided/self-generated cues to retrieve items from memoryProcesses may be different for recall/recog

Question 18

What is meant by encoding? (X2)

Answer 18

The processing operations (type of study) that cause item to be stored in LTM

Question 19

What is meant by encoding/retrieval interactions? (X3)

Answer 19

The good memory not just down to good encoding and retrieval cues - need to considerHow the material is to be used, andHow memory is to be assessed at test

Question 20

What is the argument for depth of processing in memory encoding? (X1)And three pieces of evidence for?

Answer 20

Argument is for continuum of depth: orthography, phonology, semanticCraik found better recall after semantic than rehearsalSmall size difference between animals = better memory for words - deeper semantic analysis for small diffsRecall better for words used in elaborate way, eg the great bird swooped down and carried off the struggling (chicken)

Question 21

Describe evidence on the influence of emotion on memory encoding (x3)

Answer 21

Rubin/Kozin found strongest childhood memories for emotionally charged events - but probably through repeated discussionsCahill/McGaugh found better memories for ‘real’ surgical pictures than fakeHigh confidence proclaimed for flashbulb memories of significant events

Question 22

What does evidence suggest about retrieval processes and cues?

Answer 22

Good cues - contextual info encoded (provided or self-generated) at study, or given at test = better recall

Question 23

What is the Transfer Appropriate Processing framework? (X11)And two pieces of evidence for?

Answer 23

It is idea that transfer to LTM is best when study and test processes overlapMorris, Bransford, Frank: superiority of semantic memory is due to the semantic nature of most memory testsEncoding specificity - Tulving, Thompson: retrieval is best if conditions, info, encoding match those at retrieval

Question 24

What are one indirect and three direct benefits of repeated tests of learning?

Answer 24

Study more when know a test is comingHighlights gaps in knowledgeAdditional encoding of retrieved materialImproved ease of retrieval

Question 25

How does the Transfer Appropriate Processing framework differ from memory systems concept? (X2)Plus one piece of evidence

Answer 25

Need to rethink of episodic/semantic memory systems as distinct,And by extension that tests were accessing one or the otherEncoding in Blaxton: conceptual condition generated related word, perceptual read the word with a control, found that match CS mismatch at study/test would predict memory

Question 26

What approaches can you take to uni learning, apart from repeated testing?(x3)

Answer 26

Distributed practice Elaborative interrogation - why is this true?Self-explanation/ordering of info

Question 27

What evidence discounts the Levels of Processing idea of memory encoding? (X2)

Answer 27

The Stroop effect - asked to process orthography, not meaningSo effect wouldn’t happen if we could truly only process at that level

Question 28

Craig found that intent to learn has what impact on memory encoding?(X3)

Answer 28

NoneResults are the same as for semantic - higher than orthography then phonologyBut this likely indicates use of semantic strategies

Question 29

Hue and Jenkins, 1973, found what impact for intent to learn on memory encoding? (X3)

Answer 29

NoneRatings of pleasantness of task, or letter checking task, under impression of memory task to come, or notNo diff in incidental/intentional, but higher for semantic task

Question 30

How does semantic processing work, according to the LOP model of memory encoding? (X2)

Answer 30

It’s the impact on retrieval - More pathways, cues, connections

Question 31

Deep/semantic/elaborate processing is associated with what processes of student learning? (X3)

Answer 31

Organisation - own order enhances memory, eg method of loci, mnemonicsChunking - promoted through meaning/structure of itemsUnderstanding - learn story better if preceded by an interpretation

Question 32

What are the logical/conceptual issues of the LOP model of memory encoding? (X2)

Answer 32

Badddley - it’s circular; deep = memory = deepCraik/Tulving - couldn’t isolate properties of deep processing: doesn’t take longer, and difficulty of task doesn’t improve memory

Question 33

Empirical issues with the LOP model of memory encoding? (X1)And evidence (x2)

Answer 33

Is it meaning or distinctiveness? Eysenck/Eysenck found that distinctiveness in pronunciation groups increased memory to same level as distinct/typical semantic conditionsSo connections support retrieval, and distinctiveness helps figure among related items/diff responses

Question 34

What is th relationship between emotion and encoding? (X1)Although evidence that this doesn’t tell the whole story… (X1)

Answer 34

Emotion = arousal = attentionNeilson et al found that showing surgical vs neutral pics after asked to remember word list = better memory - biochemical effect on consolidation caused by emotion

Question 35

What distinguishes flashbulb memories from others? (X2)Which must be considered during… (X1)

Answer 35

ConfidenceMemories subject to same levels of forgetting, despite intense sense of accurate recallCriminal cases - must take FAs into account…

Question 36

The relationship between study and test is vital to… (x2)

Answer 36

What aspect of material are encodedWhat cognitive operations are carried out on the material

Question 37

What is encoding specificity (Tulving/Thomson, 1973)? (x1)And evidence for… (x2)

Answer 37

Retrieval best if conditions, info and encoding match those at retrievalBetter accuracy for words remembered singly/paired depending on single/paired at studyEnvironment context and state-dependent learning – recall best if you reinstate many of the conditions as possible (eg study words either in water or on land)

Question 38

What is a possible side effect of repeated retrievals on memory encoding? (x2)With implications for (x2)

Answer 38

Memory is reconstructiveEncode info from own schemas = interaction Repeated questioning in legal testimony, and tests of student learning

Question 39

Spitzer 1939, and Roediger/Karpicke 2006, showed effects of early testing on memory recall, finding that… (x2 + 2)

Answer 39

RL study found large drop in accuracy if first test delayedLevelled out after 2 weeks, but early group consistently higherLab test memorising 40 wordsGroups: study-test (STST), repeated study (SSST), repeated test (STTT)Order of best recall one week later: STST, STTT, SSST

Question 40

Testing can give the illusion of knowledge through access to info in WM if… (x3)

Answer 40

When test immediate after studyMaterial repeatedly studiedCorrect answer available without effortful retrieval

Question 41

Evidence shows that testing benefits are most evident if… (x2)And… (x1)

Answer 41

The first test is shortly after study, but not soon enough to access WMFeedback is given after each test

Question 42

Thomson et al 1978 established the effects of test feedback, in a study involving… (x1)Which found that…(x2)Concluding…(x1)

Answer 42

Repeated testing with representation afterwards of items not recalled= better performance after learning, 48 hrs later too, than SSSS or STTTTesting consolidates recall, study picks up those not originally well encodedFeedback essential – best after a retrieval effort, while concepts still active

Question 43

Two possible disadvantages of testing…But these are… (x1)

Answer 43

Interference from prior tests can = retrieval induced forgettingLearning of incorrect answers, Roediger/Marsh: Ps read passage, then do multiple choice followed by cued-recallLarge benefit of prior test, with small suggestion effect Both small impacts relative to benefits

Question 44

When do multiple-choice tests provide testing benefits? (x2)

Answer 44

Use plausible distractors = thinking about alternativesThereby fostering learning about both in/correct answers

Question 45

LOP theory held that…(x1)But we now know that… (x2)

Answer 45

Certain encoding tasks were generally superiorMemory quality depends on how task implemented, andExtent to which study processes used at test

Question 46

Interpreting memory accuracy requires consideration of

Answer 46

Recognition as a discrimination taskTake into account Hits and FA◦ e.g., subtract FA from Hits to correct the Hits for guessing yes.◦ Perform signal detection analysis to estimate sensitivity and biasIf FA rate is very low, Hits can be interpreted more safely.

Question 47

What is the theoretical significance of Eysenck/Eysenck’s semantic tasks/distinctiveness findings?

Answer 47

Proposed that semantic study tasks made items distinctive◦ Meaning helps memory through distinctiveness, NOT because it is “deep” processingTook “superficial” task (pronunciation), and changed it to make items distinctive◦ Give items a different (regular) pronunciationPredicted/found good memory in the “say as regular” (phonetic) condition.

Question 48

Define and describe the four elements of classical conditioning

Answer 48

US – stimulates unlearned responseUR – unlearned response to USCS – stimulus organism must lean to respond toCR – learned response to CS

Question 49

Three stages of a prototypical classical/Pavlovian conditioning experiment are…

Answer 49

Habituation – CS aloneAcquisition – CS and USExtinction – CS alone again

Question 50

Three factors affecting the acquisition curve in classical conditioning are…

Answer 50

Intensity: the more intense the US, the faster the learningOrder: CS usually before USTiming: ISI - interstimulus interval

Question 51

Name and describe the five different types of classical conditioning, which vary on inter stimulus interval (ISI)

Answer 51

In short- and long-delay conditioning, the CS/US overlap – either shorter or longer period between onset of CS and USTrace conditioning has gap between CS/USSimultaneous is CS/US togetherBackward is US then CS – less common and effective

Question 52

The optimal ISI in classical conditioning is dependent on… For example

Answer 52

The measure used eg for eye-blink is 200ms, for taste aversion 30 mins

Question 53

The optimal inter-trial interval (ITI) in classical conditioning is…

Answer 53

The longer the better, e.g. 15 seconds, so events are isolated

Question 54

Excitatory (classical) conditioning requires… (x2)

Answer 54

CS predicts US occurrence, eg A-US, A-US, A-USRequires neither summation or retardation tests

Question 55

Inhibitory (classical) conditioning/conditioned inhibition requires… (x4)

Answer 55

CS predicts absence of US, eg A-US, A-US, AB, A-US, AB (where B becomes the inhibitory conditioner)Inhibitors must pass two tests in order to be acknowledged:i.Retardation testii.Summation test

Question 56

Extinction in classical conditioning is when… And is not… (X2)

Answer 56

CS becomes ambiguous - may or may not predict US Inhibitory conditioning, because reacquisition post-extinction is more rapidIs also not forgetting (passive decay) or unlearning (active forgetting)

Question 57

Reacquisition classically conditioned behaviours post-extinction is more rapid than original acquisition because of… (x3)

Answer 57

Spontaneous recovery: if CS is reintroduced after a break, CR reappearsRenewal: occurs when extinction is context specific, Eg acquisition occurs in X (blue room), extinction in y (blue room), CS presented in X still = CRReinstatement/Reminder effect: US presented alone after extinction (reminds you of CS), so presentation of CS = CR

Question 58

Latent inhibition in classical conditioning is… (x2)And is not due to… (x2)

Answer 58

CS pre-exposureWhen you’ve had many more exposures than in the habituation phase - impairs learningHabituation: which is not context specificConditioned inhibition: as passes retardation, but not summation test

Question 59

Three incorrect assumptions of classical conditioning are…As shown by… (x2)

Answer 59

Equipotentiality – that any stimulus can be paired with any responseContiguity - that the more 2 stimuli are paired the stronger the association will beContingency – that trail to trial changes are regular (sometimes no learning at all, other times you ‘get it’)Blocking and superconditioning show these to be wrong – not what you’d expect intuitively

Question 60

Blocking in classical conditioning is when…Which disproves assumptions of… (x3)

Answer 60

Association is impaired between neutral stimulus (that has been paired with previously conditioned excitatory Stimulus) and a US - nothing is learned about new stimuluso Equipotentiality – light/shock pairing didn’t = conditioningContiguity – both groups had same number of noise/shock exposures, but learned differentlyContingency – trail to trial changes weren’t regular (rats simply ignored the light)

Question 61

Superconditioning in classical conditioning is when… (x2)Which disproves assumptions of… (x3)

Answer 61

Association is facilitated between neutral stimulus through pairing with a previously conditioned inhibitory one (that predicts absence of USEg rats learn that tone predicts absence of shock, later light/tone presented with shock = rapid learning that light is the predictor1. Equipotentiality – that any stimulus can be paired with any responseContiguity - that the more 2 stimuli are paired the stronger the association will beContingency – that trail to trial changes are regular (sometimes no learning at all, other times you ‘get it’)

Question 62

The retardation test is used to… (x1)And in order to pass… (x1)

Answer 62

Decide whether a stimulus is a conditioned inhibitor (classical conditioning)Learning must be slower compared to the neutral stimulus

Question 63

The procedure for the retardation test of inhibitory classical conditioning is… (x4)

Answer 63

A stimulus is trained to be inhibitoryIt is then repeatedly paired with a US - ie trained to be excitatoryA neutral stimulus is also trained to be excitatoryIf acquisition of excitatory CR is impaired for the inhibitory relative to neutral, the inhibitory one passes the retardation test

Question 64

Procedure for the summation test of inhibitory classical conditioning… (x3)

Answer 64

Pair excitatory stimulus (A, that predicts UC) with inhibitor (I)Condition that yellow light (CS) = shock (US) (excitatory), and tone predicts absence of shock (inhibitory)Will lead to lower response to Combined CS than A alone (A + I

Question 65

The summation test is used to… (x1)And in order to pass…(x1)

Answer 65

Decide whether a stimulus is a conditioned inhibitor (classical conditioning)Learning must be slower with the combined excitatory and inhibitory conditioner, than to excitatory alone

Question 66

Explain the difference between blocking and superconditioning … (x2)

Answer 66

BLOCKING: Nothing is learnt about a novel CS that is paired with an excitatory CS (one that is already very predic8ve of the US).SUPERCONDITIONING: Learning is faster if a novel CS is paired with an inhibitory CS (one that predicts absence of the US).

Question 67

How is blocking different from CS Pre-exposure? (x2)

Answer 67

Blocking refers to impaired learning of a second CS, due to pairing with an original excitatory CS. Latent inhibi8on refers to impaired learning of a first CS, due to pre- exposure before CS-US pairing.

Question 68

What could be modified in the Stock Market Game to show CS Pre-exposure?

Answer 68

Present a stimulus alone several times prior to pairing it with the US

Question 69

Name three experimental factors that might affect the speed of acquisition of a conditioned response, and give real life example of each

Answer 69

The temporal relationship between the CS and the US (larger intervals would lead to slower acquisition) - becoming ill more than 24 hrs after eating somethingThe intensity/salience of the CS or US (less intensity would lead to slower acquisition) - jackhammer from a distanceWhether the CS was previously inhibitory (learning would be slower for a previously inhibitory CS) -

Question 70

What are two design factors that influence classical conditioning?

Answer 70

Interstimulus interval, ISIIntertrial interval, ITI

Question 71

What are three different learning processes that can occur within Pavlovian conditioning, and what defines them?

Answer 71

Excitatory conditioning: CS predicts US, CS elicits CR (usually)Inhibitory conditioning: CS predicts absence of US - no CR (requires tests)Extinction: CS becomes ambiguous

Question 72

In short and long delay classical conditioning… (x2)

Answer 72

The CS/US overlap Either shorter or longer ISI between onset of CS and US

Question 73

In trace conditioning (classical)… (x1)

Answer 73

The ISI is a gap between CS/US

Question 74

In simultaneous conditioning (classical)… (x1)

Answer 74

There is no ISI - CS/US presented together

Question 75

In backward conditioning (classical)… (x2)

Answer 75

US precedes USLess common and effective

Question 76

Five Pavlovian Phenomena

Answer 76

Blocking: learning about the second stimulus is impaired by knowledge of the firstSuperconditioning: learning about the second stimulus is hurried along by knowledge of the firstGeneralisation: response to one stimulus extended to another - doesn’t last when learn that stim isn’t predicting outcomeDiscrimination: refining of generalised responsesPreparedness (Garcia Effect): e.g. taste aversion - biological tendency to form association; contradicts equipotentiality; need fewer pairings to get CR, slower to extinction, evolutionary

Question 77

Modelling in psych provides… (x2)Can be… (x2)And should… (x2)

Answer 77

Formal explanation of researchSimplified realityMathematical or structuralWork independently of procedure used (light, shock, etc) and generate testable predictions

Question 78

One successful model of classical conditioning is the Rescorla-Wagner model, which is…And is calculated by…(x4)

Answer 78

A mathematical model that predicts learning curves∆V = αβ (λ −V) ∆V - Change in associative value of CSα - salience of the CS
(0 – 1), fixed for given learning context eg light is light, lower = flatter curve, higher = rapid initial learningβ - strength of the US to promote conditioning (0 – 1), also fixed, low = flatter curve, higher = rapid initial learningλ - Magnitude associative value that can be condition for CS (max learning that can happen over time, eg 100, from base-line = 0V - Current associative value of CS/expected strength of US (expectations about the CS-US association – first trail = 0, and changes over time) (varies/affects curve), eg following conditioning – animal expects US, so set this to 100; for extinction, US stops being presented, so set conditioning strength to 0; produces extinction curve

Question 79

The Rescorla-Wagner model of classical conditioning predicts blocking because… (x4)

Answer 79

The expected strength (V) becomes the sum of all the CS presentedEg conditioned tone (100) + unconditioned light (0) = 100 – learned all possible about noise, nothing about lightAnd expected strength of CS becomes 100 – you’ve learned to expect the shock from the toneProduces horizontal function – no learning

Question 80

The Rescorla-Wagner model of classical conditioning predicts superconditioning because… (x4)

Answer 80

Initial training with inhibitor = negative value for VInitial training with inhibitor = negative value for V Actively expected an absence of US (0 = could go either way)Produces really rapid learning curve

Question 81

In contrast with prior assumptions that CR increased with more CS/US pairings, the Rescorla-Wagner model assumes that…And so explains blocking and super conditioning as… (x2)

Answer 81

Increased CR is because the CS-US is surprisingBlocking is explained as the second CS not changing how surprising the US is (eg light not surprising rat, as it already expects shock after it being previously paired with noise)Superconditioning is from the surprise at new CS that is paired with a conditioned inhibitory stimulus (eg light/no shock, then light/tone/shock = surprise and rapid learning)

Question 82

Research into fear conditioning has shown that…Through a differential conditioning paradigm, involving… (x3)

Answer 82

We’re predisposed to fear certain animals, eg Sweden – no deadly animals, lotsa deadly shrooms, but not afraid of mushroomsFear-relevant (snake) was paired with CS+ (shock) and CS- (different snake, absence of shock); Fear irrelevant (mushrooms) same conditioning; Compare acquisition and extinction across excitatory and inhibitory stimuli

Question 83

Research into the conditioning of racial attitudes found that… (x3)In an experiment based on/involving… (x2)But is not a result of… (x1)

Answer 83

Learning was faster for other-race faces paired with shock, and more resistant to evictionLesser effect in those who’d dated inter-raciallyDifferential conditioning paradigmPairing same or other-race faces with shockPredisposition to dislike other races, as is easily overcome - probably due to more exposure to own

Question 84

Conditioning is thought to contribute to heroin overdosing through…(x1)Due to…(x1)Resulting in… (x1)Mortality rates in rats… (x3)

Answer 84

Context conditioning affects tolerance - faster metabolising of drug in familiar environmentBody preparing for it = less effectSo new environment increases effect96% in first-time users, 64% in different room, %32% in familiar

Question 85

Phobias are a clinical example of… (x1)And are… (x1)

Answer 85

Classical conditioning - learned association of fear with stimulusSelf-sustaining, because phobics avoid exposure to fear-inducing situations

Question 86

Systematic desensitisation is a behavioural intervention used to treat… (x1)Through… (x3)

Answer 86

PhobiasCreate fear hierarchyThen relaxation training so experience isn’t aversiveThen gradual exposure to CS without US

Question 87

The Stock Market Game was used to illustrate… (x1)By…(x2)

Answer 87

Blocking and superconditioningBy pairing excitatory stimulus with either inhibitory or excitatory stimulusThen measuring whether we exhibited faster or slower learning to different pairings

Question 88

Test the generalisation phenomena in Pavlovian conditioning by… (x3)Egs (x2)

Answer 88

First train with CS-USThen test different groups with first and other CS= more generalisation to similar stimuliLittle Albert generalising fear response from white rats to all white fluffy thingsMoore’s conditioning of rabbits eye blink at 1200Hz tone by pairing with shock - test at 400, 800Hz etc during extinction = most responses around 1200Hz

Question 89

Test the discrimination phenomena in Pavlovian conditioning by… (x3)Which shows that.. (x1)Giving… (x1)

Answer 89

Each exposure of CS1-US refines associationProvided CS2 or CS3 not ever presented with US Reduced responding to CS2, CS3 over timeGeneralisation doesn’t lastEvolutionary benefits - learn that snakes not sticks are dangerous

Question 90

What is the basis of operant conditioning? (x3)

Answer 90

That consequences = change in voluntary behaviourRewards = increasePunishment = decrease

Question 91

How can one punish effectively, according to operant conditioning principles? (x8)

Answer 91

No escapeNo delayAs intense as possibleContinuous schedule bestVariable least effectiveOver short periodNo subsequent reinforcer (don’t laugh after telling them off)Increased effectiveness by reinforcing incompatible, appropriate behaviours

Question 92

Three reward variables that act alongside schedules to affect operant conditioning are…

Answer 92

DriveSizeDelay

Question 93

What are three mechanisms of stimulus control?Which mean it is easier to… (x1)Eg behaviours under stimulus control… (x4)

Answer 93

Stimulus generalisationStimulus discriminationStimulus selectionMould than create behaviourTraffic lights, typical talking distances, buying certain brands at the shop, social drinkers/smokers

Question 94

Thorndike’s cats were an investigation into… (x2)In an experiment involving… (x1)Which found that… (x1)

Answer 94

How animals problem solve/are subject to operant conditioningPuzzle box - string, platform, latch in boxEventually get out by chance, then rapid decrease in escape time

Question 95

Skinner’s Box for operant conditioning experiments involved… (x4)And had advantages over Thorndyke’s puzzle box because… (x1)

Answer 95

Cues provided by speakers, lightsA lever/button to pressFood dispenserShocker in floorIt could operate unattended - used for many experiments

Question 96

Three possible methods for teaching new behaviours through operant conditioning are…

Answer 96

Wait - till animal performs desired behaviourShaping - reward closer approximationsChaining - link smaller behaviours into more complex than can be conditioned through shaping

Question 97

Superstitious behaviour according to Skinner/operant conditioning… (x3)

Answer 97

Random rewards = belief we are causing its arrivalSo random reinforcement can shape behaviour, e.g. athletes’ rituals, lucky pantsOur nature is to try and link behaviours with expected outcomes, even if no true association exists, e.g. pushing pedestrian crossing buttons

Question 98

The three term contingency is… (x4)

Answer 98

Skinners basis for conditioningDiscriminative stimulus – sets the occasion; cue that tells what behaviour is required; the context, eg room you’re inOperant response – behaviour animal chooses in expectation of the…Outcome – reinforcer/punisher that follows; the consequence

Question 99

Positive reinforcement in operant conditioning…Eg

Answer 99

Adds something to the situation in order to increase behaviourFinish homework, get ice-cream

Question 100

Negative reinforcement in operant conditioning…Eg

Answer 100

Removes something to increase behaviourTurning on air-conditioning removes discomfort

Question 101

Positive punishment in operant conditioning…Eg

Answer 101

Adds something to decrease behaviourAnti-barking collars

Question 102

Negative punishment in operant conditioning…Eg

Answer 102

Removes something to decrease behaviourTraffic fines, time outs

Question 103

Unwanted side effects of punishment according to operant conditioning principles… (x5)

Answer 103

Changes in other behavioursAggression FearModelling of violenceLearned helplessness

Question 104

Schedules of reinforcement in operant conditioning may be… (x1)Or… (plus four types)

Answer 104

Continuous (CRF) – each response; better for punishment than reinforcementPartial (PRF)/intermittent – only some• Fixed ration (FR) – every nth time; eg piece-rate pay• Variable ration (VR) – on average every nth time; eg gambling; the most effective schedule• Fixed interval (FI) – first response after n seconds• Variable interval (VI) – on average, the first response after n seconds; eg checking the mail; more rewarding than FI

Question 105

Graphed functions for partial/intermittent reward schedules show… (x4)

Answer 105

VR = steepest, most consistent increase in responsesFR is next, with post-reinforcement pauses after each responseVI is consistent, but slowerFI is slowest, with scalloped pattern (post-reinforcemtn pause followed by slowly increasing responses)

Question 106

Which schedules of reinforcement are most efficient? (x1)

Answer 106

Ratio

Question 107

Which schedule of reward is most resistant to extinction? (x1)

Answer 107

Variable ratio, VR

Question 108

Drive in operant conditioning is… (x2)

Answer 108

A reward variable that interacts with schedulesReinforcement depends on how much the organism wants the reinforcer - hungry or full?

Question 109

Size in operant conditioning is… (x4)

Answer 109

A reward variable that interacts with schedulesBigger is better; but subject to diminishing returns Acquisition is faster with large/desired reward; But extinction is also – smaller rewards = more extinction resistance

Question 110

Delay in operant conditioning is… (x3)

Answer 110

A reward variable that interacts with schedulesReduces effectivenessWe prefer short-term reinforcement over long term punishment (ie chocolate over weight gain)

Question 111

Stimulus generalisation in operant conditioning is… (x2)

Answer 111

Reinforced responses to one stimuli = tendency to respond similarly to similar propertiesLoose degree of stimulus control

Question 112

Stimulus discrimination in operant conditioning is… (x3)

Answer 112

Degree to which antecedent stimuli set the occasion for particular responsesPrecise degree of stimulus controlTaught by using discrimination training procedures such as differential reinforcement

Question 113

Stimulus selection in operant conditioning is… (x1)

Answer 113

Stimuli can become signals (can control behaviour) if they’re predictive

Question 114

Ratio in operant conditioning refers to… (x1)And entails what two types?

Answer 114

Reinforcement based on how many times a subject respondsFixed - based on definite number of responsesVariable - given at some point during every X responses

Question 115

Interval schedules in operant conditioning refers to… (x1)And entails what two types?

Answer 115

Reinforcement based on the time elapsed since last reinforcerFixed - based on definite time periodVariable - given any time within a time period

Question 116

A young child is allowed to go outside alone to play with friends, under the condition that she checks in with her mother regularly. Her mother praises her every second time she checks in.What reinforcement schedule is being used?

Answer 116

Fixed ratio

Question 117

Pop quizzes are a common motivator lecturers use to encourage studying material on a regular basis and for attending lectures. Which reinforcement schedule is being used?

Answer 117

Variable interval - at some point there will be a quiz

Question 118

Playing the pokies provides payoffs on occasion, as long as the person is performing the operant response of putting money in the machine and pressing the button or pulling the lever.Which reinforcement schedule is being used?

Answer 118

Variable ratio

Question 119

A factory worker paid for piecework (e.g., having to assemble a certain number of units to receive money)Which reinforcement schedule is being used?

Answer 119

Fixed ratio

Question 120

Deep sea fishing rewards on which reinforcement schedule?

Answer 120

Variable interval - rewards every so often during time rod is in water

Question 121

In contrast to normal fishing, fly fishing involves frequent casting and reeling back before catching the fish. Which type of schedule is a fly fisher on? (HINT: the more you cast, the better your chances).

Answer 121

Variable ratio - reward based on indefinite number of attempts

Question 122

A salesman is paid solely on commission, what reward schedule is he on?

Answer 122

Variable Ratio (more attempts to sell = more likely that you will get paid, but still don’t know when)

Question 123

Hitchhiking is based on what reward schedule?

Answer 123

Variable interval - can’t predict how long you’ll be standing there

Question 124

An executive’s contract specifies salary increases to be negotiated every six months.What reward schedule is this?

Answer 124

Fixed interval

Question 125

A cleaner takes a break after each floor is cleanedWhat reward schedule is this?

Answer 125

Fixed ratio

Question 126

What does discrimination training teach? (x2)

Answer 126

The performance of a specific response in the presence of a specific stimulus, and not to perform that response in the presence of another stimulus.

Question 127

What is meant by stimulus control? (x2)And what does it result in? (x2)

Answer 127

Your behaviour comes to be under the control of the stimulusHappens when stimulus is present, doesn’t happen when absentGeneralisation within a class of stimuliDiscrimination between classes of stimuli

Question 128

Describe the nature of punishment and its limitations in terms of escape vs avoidance (x5)

Answer 128

It requires no possibility of avoidance/escape, otherwise animal will employ:Escape learning - a response that terminates aversive consequence (neg reinforcement)Avoidance learning - response that prevents aversive altogetherOne-way avoidance - escape quickly becomes avoid (quicker with intense stim/different compartments)Two-way - cues predict arrival of stimulus and escape to ‘other’ chamber (faster with weak stim/similar compartments

Question 129

What is learned helplessness, and how does it relate to depression (x3)

Answer 129

It is reduced response to (perceived) uncontrollable outcomeDepression is the clinical extremeOutcomes worse for attribution than reality (ie thinking you’re not very clever is worse than having a lower IQ)

Question 130

How do psychs apply principles of behavioural therapy? (x3)

Answer 130

Use classical and operant conditioning principles with the aim of modifying situation inappropriate behavioursNeed to know what situations lead/don’t to the behaviour and learn how to modify responseie do functional analysis

Question 131

Three theories of reinforcement are…

Answer 131

Skinner’s operational definition: reinforcers increase/punishers decreaseDrive reduction: reinforcers maintain homeostasisPremack’s Behaviour regulation: that they maintain behavioural homeostasis - the ‘bliss point’ of all good things met/bad avoided

Question 132

Drive reduction theory is… (x3)And issues of… (x3)

Answer 132

A theory of reinforcementReinforcers maintain physiological homeostasis - seek satisfaction/food to maintain itDrives need to be satisfied, and stimulation needs to be reducedNovel stimuli don’t fit the model – what about incentive reinforcers Intra-cranial stimulation can override the drivesIssues of reinforcement that inc stimulation eg sky-diving/sensation seeking

Question 133

Premack’s behaviour regulation theory is… (x2)That is based on the (x1)Eg (x1)

Answer 133

A theory of reinforcementThat behavioural homeostasis is desired - ‘Bliss point’ is all good things met, all bad avoidedPremack principle: there’s hierarchy of behaviours, arranged according to response probability – can use more desired to reinforce the less, eg reinforce running the wheel while dehydrated by rewarding it with drinkingEg reward an hrs study with 5 mins FB (the more desired behaviour)

Question 134

A treatment that involved putting the Premack Principle to work (x4)

Answer 134

Introducing new foods to 7yo who refused to eat all but a fewLow probability is the operant response – eating new foodHigh prob is eating his favouriteReinforce small amounts of new with his favourites to increase variety

Question 135

The two factor avoidance model in operant conditioning explains… (x2)As shown in procedure involving… (x3)

Answer 135

Why avoidance continues in the absence of stimuli (which should otherwise result in extinction of response)Acquisition, but not extinction or maintenance of behaviour First, a learning of association with fear, CS with CR (fear) – something novel with something that has value (signal w shock)Then, operant conditioning step: avoidance reduces fear; CR then R (operant response) = C- (no fear)The absence of fear is negative reinforcer

Question 136

Understanding avoidance theory is important in… (x2)

Answer 136

Understanding anxiety behaviours/phobiasYou are never around situations that induce it, so can’t extinguish fear – perpetuates anxiety

Question 137

Clinical avoidance reduction involves… (x5)

Answer 137

Exposure training: flooding + response preventionModelling of situationally appropriate behaviourEngage in relaxation techniques perhapsReduce anxiety in sensu (in imagination): desensitisation is gradual, exposure is massed exposureOr in vivo (real life): habituation is gradual, flooding is massed/immediate

Question 138

Seligma’s 1967 paradigm looked at learned helplessness through…In a procedure involving… (x5)Finding… (x1)

Answer 138

The effect of unavoidable shock in dogsSome experience escapable shock – pressing lever would stop itOther ‘inescapable’ were yoked to the first dog – experienced what they did, but no control over itNo shock control groupThen train in shuttle boxFound those randomly shocked couldn’t learn to avoid: unless you physically moved themAlso had lower activity levels and norepinephrine, analgesia (opiate production), lower immunity, increased ulcers (stress)Therefore, repeated inescapable punishment = learned helplessness

Question 139

What is the purpose and method of functional analysis in operant conditioning? (x5)With the benefit that it is… (x1)Eg… (x1)

Answer 139

Establishes what reinforcers are maintaining an undesirable behaviourMonitor the relationship between stimuli, behaviour, consequences Divides complex behaviours into simpler, more manageable partsSeeks contextually inappropriate behaviours – not right/wrong/medicalisedVery individualised (N = 1)The self-injuring behaviour of 10yo boy: was often an escape behaviour – to stop doing something he didn’t like; so stopped it by rewarding an unliked task (completed without injury) with fun one

Question 140

What are the five elements of a SORCK table in functional analysis/operant conditioning?

Answer 140

S – what happened before the behaviourO – skills and state of organsism at the timeR – the behaviourC – consequences of itK – effect consequences have on future behaviours

Question 141

What is the relationship between CBT and behavioural therapies?

Answer 141

Puts thinking back into the mix – change thoughts around behaviourMuch is based on operant conditioning, esp in treating anxietyFocus on ‘thinking errors’ and ‘core beliefs’ – cognitiveAlso using behavioural – practice exercises, homework

Question 142

Three theories of imagery are…Which differ largely on

Answer 142

Paivio’s dual-coding hypothesisConceptual-Propositional Hypothesis (Anderson and Bower)Functional equivalence hypothesisWhether we encode in analogue or propositionally

Question 143

Four pieces of empirical evidence for the claim that imagery involves similar processes as perception includes…

Answer 143

NEUROSCIENCE: Damage to visual areas = corresponding damage to imagery; activation in visual cortex when imagining.SIZE EFFECT: Takes longer to answer a question about a small object in imagery than a large objectIMAGE SCANNING EFFECT: More time required to mentally scan further distances across visual imagery, just as it would perceptuallyINTERFERENCE EFFECTS: Visual imagery interferes with visual perceptual processing, auditory imagery interferes with auditory perceptual processing, not vice versa

Question 144

Representations… (x1)Consist of two components

Answer 144

Exist in themselves, and also stand in for something elseReferent: what is being representedSense: how it is being represented

Question 145

Two types of representationsDebate continues as to whether… (x1)

Answer 145

Analogue: a 1:1 relationship, e.g. photo of a roomPropositional/allegorical: arbitrary, use of symbols combined under rules - can be true/false, allows separation of elements e.g. brown and dogThe mind is analogue or propositional

Question 146

Imagery is… Allowing us to… (x2)And is useful in… (x3)

Answer 146

Ability to imagine scenes, music, sensations etc, in absence of physical presencePerform operations and gain knowledge from them – eg how many doors in your house? (mental ‘walk’)Mental time travel – eg my house at age 10; Creation of non-real worlds and mental maps (found in other animals - rats can get through maze first time); Imagined practice – helps real world performance

Question 147

Paivio’s dual coding hypothesis of imagery argues that… (x1)Eg… (x1)Evidence for… (x2)

Answer 147

Info is represented in verbal and imaginal codeLondon cabbie using imagery and propositionsInfo coded or stored in either/both:Concrete words remembered easier than abstract – are in both codes, eg a t.a.b.l.e and a picture of, while abstract only in verbalAnd concrete words can be put together in scenario for easier remembering

Question 148

The conceptual-propositional hypothesis of imagery argues that…And is evidenced by two studies (x3 + 1)

Answer 148

We store meaning/interpretation, not analogue componentsTested subjects with {relationship (subject, object)}, so {kissed (boy, girl)}Remembered hearing related words not in original list just as well as those that wereConclusion – too much info to store analogue, so must be propositional storage (even images)Same image with barbell or spectacle written next to itBarbell condition stated having seen longer line between 2 circles than had in fact, spectacle claimed to have seen shorter (top-down processing)

Question 149

The functional equivalence hypothesis of imagery argues that… (x1)Based on evidence showing… (x2)Which strongly suggests…

Answer 149

It’s not direct 1:1, but not purely abstract eitherMap/image relationships are functionally equivalentMental rotation - takes longer to rotate 180 than 20 degrees (linear effect with reality)Common neural mechanisms for imagery/perception

Question 150

Mental rotation experiments find that…Results are challenged by… (x1)But supported by… (x1)Doesn’t require assumptions of… (x1)And strongly suggests… (x1)Analogue imagery… (x1)

Answer 150

In RL, takes longer to rotate 180 than 20 degrees – same in imagery (same linear effect)Those claiming demand effects – participants working out what’s expected of themSame analogue relationship effect found in baboonsA 2-step process, a representation that we then rotate – maybe rep of rotating object (as yet unresolved)Common neural mechanisms imagery/perceptionMakes evolutionary sense

Question 151

Evidence for analogue effects in mental imagery… (x3)

Answer 151

Transformations: eg D, rotated 90o, put 4 on top – looks like a sailboatVisual size effects (Kosslyn): object that’s bigger in your mind is easier to answer question about; eg tail on a frog? Next to fly/elephantImage scanning: linear relationship between distances on map, and time taken to travel mentally; propositionally, you’d be there instantly

Question 152

Symons’ interference hypothesis of dreams argues that we… (x1)Resulting in… (x1)Because we need to… (x1)

Answer 152

Can afford visual/motor hallucinations while sleeping - not using those systems anywayVisual/kinaesthetic dreams, ot auditory/tactile/olfactoryNeed to be vigilant to danger while asleep

Question 153

Bisiach and Luzzatti studied Ps with lesions to right parietal lobeCondition’s name and effectProcedure (x2) and findings (x1)

Answer 153

Visual neglect syndrome - ignoring left side of visual fieldHad Ps name the buildings in piazza (in imagery)Then ‘turn’ and come back throughFound that neglect transferred to imaginary space

Question 154

Three pieces of evidence for common perceptual/imagery processes from metabolic imaging studies

Answer 154

PET scans found increased activity in occipital/temporal parietal areas: visual and memory – need to retrieve it in order to imagine it, and greater activation for image than perception – top-down is more demandingERP shows more occipital ERP effects among those who claim strong imager abilitiesSingle-cell recordings: train a monkey to point at the light to get a banana – different cells light up for each direction pointed; if trained to point at 90o to light, cells light up as if the monkey were moving it’s arm in an arc from light to required point in space

Question 155

Summary of findings on mentalese - the language of the mind… (x4)

Answer 155

Storage of likely to be propositional, so don’t run out of spaceThinking is analogue and propSome debate for purely propositional, but contradicting evidence existsImage/perception use same resources and are functionally equivalent (supported by neuro studies)

Question 156

Our own private time machine uses… (x2)And allows… (x1)

Answer 156

Episodic memory: imagining/reliving the pastEpisodic foresight: pre-living the futureReflection/evaluation, and preparing/shaping

Question 157

What is the link between memory and foresight?As evidenced by similar…(x4)

Answer 157

Two aspects of same cognitive mechanism…Brain activation (medial temporal and medial prefrontal lobes)Psych characteristics (more temporally distant = more abstract)Impairments (amnesiacs struggle to imagine future)Development (reporting past events develops between 3 and 4yo, and those good at telling about yesterday better at tomorrow too)

Question 158

Mental time travel makes evolutionary sense because… (x1)It allows… (x2)But comes at costs… (x2)

Answer 158

Natural selection can’t go into past - depends on ability to use it for present/future survivalExtrapolate from memory of past, eg dodgy salesman, don’t go backVocab for re-combination – reassembling elements into novel scenariosErrors - as we construct the future, so too the pastReflection on past can = wishing for diff action/outcome/event

Question 159

Evidence for mental time travel in animals… (x2)

Answer 159

Scrub-jays at Cambridge Uni – displaying ‘episodic-like’ behaviours, they know what they stored, when (wont go back to the worms they cached long ago, despite being their favourite food – go for the nuts instead)Similar capacities for the where/when/what memory shown in others – chickadees, chimps, magpies, mice, rats

Question 160

Alternate explanations for/issues of mental time travel abilities in animals… (3)Conclusion… (x1)

Answer 160

Semantic memory – birds just remembering what they left, and what is good to eatAssociative learning – based on the forgetting curve, if memory is still strong, then food is good, otherwise notWe can travel in time without knowing all the WsEvidence isn’t strong enough, but we can’t ask animal what it remembers

Question 161

Try to establish mental time-travel in animals by studying… (x1)Arguments for… (x1)And against… (x2)Conclusion… (x1)

Answer 161

Foresight - flexible behaviour to secure future benefits?e-coli that switch on maltose-digesting genes earlier will have better survival/adaptive advantageSquirrels will store nuts before their first experience of winterIndividual learning: Pavlov’s dogs aren’t thinking about food, they’re expecting it – CS predicts arrival of USNo compelling evidence for

Question 162

Three benefits of foresight…

Answer 162

Can imagine any potential future – discuss it, and spend most of our idle time doing itAct now for future advantage – shopping, save for retirementCapacity for actions independent of current situation - coordinate own/others goalsOur survival depends heavily on foresight

Question 163

Shepard and Metzler’s 1971 mental rotation task:Procedure (x3)IVs/DVsHypothesisFindings

Answer 163

Ps given pairs of stimuli, one rotated to various degreesDecide whether is same or mirroredMeasure response time to make same/diff judgementIVs: degree of rotation - 0, 30, 60 etc; orientation - same/reversedDV: RTHypothesis: there’s a linear relationship between RT and degrees of rotationFindings: support analogical representation theory, and are generalisable to other objects

Question 164

Which of the following is NOT a propositional representation? A. LANGUAGE B. DIGITAL CLOCK C. PHOTOGRAPH D. MATHEMATICAL FORMULA

Answer 164

C

Question 165

What are the special characteristics of human language, according to Chomsky? (x5)

Answer 165

Open-ended language is unique - allows working to shared goalGenerativity: creation of new, eg can always come up w new ‘longest sentence’Universal grammar: different rules cross-culturally (on surface) eg subject, object, verb order, but same deeper structureCritical periods: harder to learn second language laterDoesn’t need structured learning - is natural

Question 166

What is the hierarchy of linguistic components?

Answer 166

Phonemes - individual sound, 145 altogether, culture uses subset (38 in English)Morphemes - smallest unit of meaning, root words/prefix/suffix, a number of phonemesSyntax - not meaning, but rules of constructionGrammar - the deep structure of language

Question 167

The McGurk effect is that… (x1)Test it by… (x3)And it supports which model of speech perception? (x1)

Answer 167

What we see influences the sound we hear• Acoustic stimulus, ba +• Visual lip movement, ga =• Perception, da – is closer to ba in sound, and ga in visual, so brain takes a middle path – leads to…Fuzzy logic model: the product of probability of each mode = choosing the sound with the highest probability – works for whole sentences too

Question 168

What are the Gricean maxims?And how can they be violated?

Answer 168

Quantity: Be informative, but not more than necessary; eg ‘it’s hot’ not ‘it’s 38.7598 degrees’Quality: be truthful, language doesn’t work if people lied all the time; white lies are accepted violationRelation: make your contribution relevant to aims of conversation; work toward the goal, eg the opposite of the way politicians answer questionsManner: avoid obscure expressions, vagueness, modify for audience

Question 169

What brain areas are associated with language?

Answer 169

Broca’s area - speech productionWernicke’s area - comprehension

Question 170

What is the rationale behind the idea of a language instinct? (x4)

Answer 170

Growth rather than learning – doesn’t take effortful processingCritical period is before 7yo: eg Genie couldn’t acquire syntax; lots of plasticity during this period - right takes over if left is damagedPoverty (Chomsky): acquisition not possible thru reinforcement/punishment, therefor must be predisposed; overextensionsLearning still plays role: culturally determined - phoneme selection, words acquired, and parameter setting eg SOV or SVO

Question 171

Properties of language (x4)

Answer 171

Not just speech – signing uses same cognitive structures, and brail is same as spoken language; vision, touch, hearing can all convey languageCan influence mindsArbitrary symbols – only meaningful through agreementHierarchical - phonemes, morphemes, words, phrases

Question 172

The fuzzy logic model of speech perception is…(x2)And is supported by… (x1)

Answer 172

That the product of probability of each mode = choosing the sound with the highest probability Works for whole sentences tooThe McGurk effect - what we see influence sound we hear

Question 173

Phonemes… (x6)

Answer 173

Smallest unit of speech that influences meaning, eg cat to batPhonology – how sounds are put togetherThere’s 145 altogether, culture uses a subset38 in English, 100 in an African tribe, 15 in Maori: less = more repetition, longer wordsLack invariance – physical properties of sounds vary across individuals/timePhysical signal radically altered by context (surrounding phonemes) - makes decoding speech very difficult, computers etc

Question 174

How do we understand speech given the variance in phonemes/sounds across time/individuals/contexts? (X4)

Answer 174

Motor theory (Liberman): we perceive according to physical production, not acoustic signal; German sinking/thinkingBut, context: also relies on cues/li-readingMust be parallel processing, to include the surrounding phonemesTop-down processes – expectations affect what we hear, eg hello not yellow

Question 175

The motor theory of speech perception (Liberman)… (x2)

Answer 175

Holds that we perceive according to physical production, not acoustic signaleg we hear the sounds according to how we produce them; German sinking/thinking

Question 176

Morphemes… (x5)

Answer 176

Smallest unit of meaning - root words/prefix/suffic, a number of phonemesJoining is governed by morphological rulesEg en-joy-ment = prefix-root-suffixRoot words are content morphemesEnglish doesn’t create many new words from morphemes, German does

Question 177

Syntax… (x2)Plus two processes of…

Answer 177

Not meaning, but rules of constructionEg ‘me Tarzan’ still has meaning, but syntactically incorrectRecursion: tacking clauses together, or embedding themParsing: syntactical analysis to make sense of strings of symbols

Question 178

Recursion is part of which elements of language? (x1)Involves? (x1)And possibly relates to… (x2)

Answer 178

Syntax To tack clauses together, or embed them within Mental time-travel (embedding past/future in present, and maintaining relationships) and TOM (embedding thoughts of another’s mind in your own)?

Question 179

Chomsky’s universal grammar holds that… (x5)

Answer 179

Underlying rules share many elements, despite surface structural diffsEg subject object verb (Japanese), or SVO (English)That these deep structures reflect innate organising principle of cognition LAD: innate human capacity for learning language within our environment; not geneticKids learn rules, which are then applied to other contexts, sometimes inappropriately

Question 180

Pragmatics dictate… (x3)As governed by… (x4)

Answer 180

How we vary our language in different contextsEg polite, sarcasticOften guided by social scripts, eg in restaurantThe Gricean maxims: Quantity, quality, relation, manner

Question 181

Effects of brain damage on language… (x4)

Answer 181

Split brain right hemisphere can’t verbally name but point to correct objects – has ltd comprehension, but can’t produce languageDamage to the left produces aphasia (language deficit)Damage to right = affect on prosody (rise and fall of voice, showing emotion)Right brain can take over if left is damaged in early childhood – evidences critical period

Question 182

Broca’s aphasia is… (x5)

Answer 182

Productive issues and agrammatism (grammar used incorrectly)Inability to apply syntaxCan follow instructionsSpontaneous speech is nonfluentParaphasia (using the wrong word) is uncommonComprehension is good

Question 183

Wernicke’s aphasia is… (x4)

Answer 183

Receptive aphasiaSpontaneous speech is fluentParaphasia (using wrong word) is commonComprehension is poor

Question 184

In global aphasia… (x3)

Answer 184

Spontaneous speech is nonfluentParaphasia (use of wrong word) is variableComprehension is poor

Question 185

Timeline of typical language acquisition… (x4)

Answer 185

8mo – practicing phonemes they’ve heard in their environ (babbling)10-15 mo few words appear slowly18-24 mo – vocab explosion, 1 every 2 hrs; fast-mapping of new words onto meaning after single exposure; 2 word sentences2-4 yrs: syntax acquisition; recursive embedding by 4yo – correlates with time-travel/TOM development

Question 186

Protolanguage is… (x1)As seen in… (x2)And relationship with pidgin languages… (x1)

Answer 186

Language without syntax, as in….Apes: haven’t the vocal apparatus for speech, but some association of symbols/contexts – but no open-endedness/recursion2yo similarBasic 1-2 word sentences to facilitate trade, but kids in critical period then apply syntactical rules = Creole

Question 187

The strong version of the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis holds that… (x2)And evidence against… (x1)

Answer 187

Language used controls how we thinkThoughts in one impossible to express in another Generativity allows expression of anything, so unlikely

Question 188

The weak version of the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis holds that… (x2)And evidence against… (x2)

Answer 188

Language affects how we thinkLanguage favours certain thought processes, biasing certain thinkingEg more positive/negative view due to words in languageColour names have small impact on colour categorisationLimits in number words (eg, 1, 2, many) don’t signify limits in estimating ability/computation

Question 189

Gestural language is used to… (x2)Or may constitute… (x1)Eg… (x1)

Answer 189

Convey analogue/additional infoExplain concepts difficult with words, eg ‘spiral’Whole languageNicaraguan deaf kids put together own syntactic language

Question 190

Theories on the evolution of language are divided into… (x4)And… (x4)

Answer 190

Late-bloomer theory: cave paintings = appearance of symbolic thought = language since 40 000 yrs agoEarly-blooming, more likely: aboriginals arrived here 100K yrs ago with fully formed language; discovery of Neanderthal ‘hyad’ (?) bone – vocal apparatus needed for language

Question 191

Describe the timeline for the evolution of written language…

Answer 191

Pre-ice age, all were hunter-gathersAgricultural societies brought need for accountants: using representational objects fired into clay ball, imprints on the ball, then onto tablet, and for wider range of conceptsMayans did similar independently, Easter Islanders did too, and possibly ChineseAccurate info transfer has been vital to human progress

Question 192

Corballis, 1999 theorised that language was at first… (x1)

Answer 192

Gestural, then vocal evolved

Question 193

Darwin made which three assertions regarding evolution?Which were problematic because…

Answer 193

1. All individuals vary between/within species, even twins2. Some variants more likely survive/reproduce3. Inferred from 1 and 2: given enough time, species will change – 2 separated groups will become 2 speciesUntil then, humans considered distinct from animals

Question 194

Explain the Clever Hans phenomenon (x3)And its implication for animal researchers (x1)

Answer 194

Mr von Osten’s horse could tap out answer to basic arithmetic, questions about dates, and once letter were assigned numbers, could spellPfungst noticed if questioner didn’t know answer, nor did horse – also couldn’t answer if he couldn’t see OstenWas picking up subtle cues, followed by positive reinforcementAnimal researchers must take active steps to prevent cuing the animal eg covering face

Question 195

What is the Machiavellian intelligence hypothesis? (x4)Evidenced by… (x1)

Answer 195

That it’s the social issues, not environmental change that brought increased intelligence in great apes - they don’t face many novel survival challengesEnvironment includes companions, competitors for food/matesNeed to predict/control their behaviour – through forming bonds, eg mutual groomingGoal to maximise individual as well as group benefitNeocortex size shown to increase with increasing group size: need bigger brain to deal with social relationships

Question 196

Describe the results of MSR testing (x3)

Answer 196

Gallup’s mirror self-recognition test: mark the face, observe their behaviourOrang-utan will reach for the mark, 12 mo human/monkeys can’t, 18mo can, all can by 24 monthsGibbons can’t: mark test performed with icing sugar; they love it and will lick off body parts, but not respond to it on face/in mirror, instead reaching around behind

Question 197

What is the homological argument for secondary representations?

Answer 197

By 30 months, humans show pretence, insightful problem solving, mirror self-recognitionGreat apes (chimps, orang-utans, gorills) are only primates that do too So all evolved after Old world monkeys and gibbons had split away (rather than separately in all species)

Question 198

Humans are… (x2)

Answer 198

Great apes that split from others: gorillas, chimps, orang-utans 6 million yrs ago, and bonobos 3 million

Question 199

What distinguishes primates from other animals? (x6)

Answer 199

Other animals have high reliance on smellOur vision is: stereoscopic 3D = depth perceptions = not fall out of trees and colour detecting un/ripe fruitLoss of wet naked nose, whiskers of other mammalsEncephalised – big brains relative to body sizeSeparated digits useful for manipulating environmentMainly omnivorous

Question 200

What are the two opposing arguments re the uniqueness of human capacities?Which continues because… (x1)

Answer 200

Discontinuity – emphasis on how we’re diff, threatens beliefs about religion/specialness if we’re just animals, justifies different treatment of animals/humansContinuity – that nothing unique evolved in humans, showing capacity in animal would = prestigeHow to know animal doesn’t have trait? Absence of evidence not evidence of absence

Question 201

Are we descended from apes? (x3)

Answer 201

No99.4% shared genetics with chimps, but is misleadingIt’s common ancestry: ape that was nothing like chimps or humans split into 2 lines/species, both then had 6 million yrs to evolve

Question 202

Darwin’s problem was not… (x1)It was… (x2)He predicted it was through… (x1)

Answer 202

Biology: continuity of anatomy, nervous/vascular systems was clearBut how to trace the evolution of psychology/mind: continuity of mental capacitiesHow to explain massive diff to other animalsGradation: human’s not qualitatively diff, but more of what others have

Question 203

Romanes conducted the first comparative psychology, by… (x2)Claiming that eg… (x2)

Answer 203

Collected anecdotes of clever animalsDrew analogies to make pretty big/misleading claimsAnts go to war, animals capable of suicide/criminal intent

Question 204

Lloyd Morgan’s Canon introduced to animal behaviour the principle of…Which relates to comparative psych in that, eg… (1)

Answer 204

ParsimonyMore likely squirrels store nuts due to instinct than IQ

Question 205

Trail and error responses by animals can… (x1)But don’t show… (x2)

Answer 205

Intelligent behaviourInsight - ability to solve novel problems in your mindMeans-ends reasoning - ability to keep problem in mind during other tasks/steps

Question 206

Insight is… (x1)As seen in… (x3)

Answer 206

The ability to solve novel problems in your mindKohler’s chimps, 1917• Learning to stack boxes to reach banana• Solving problem in head first, not trial and error learning

Question 207

Means ends reasoning is.. (x2)

Answer 207

Keeping the problem in mind, while eg going into another room to pick appropriate toolNot unique to humans

Question 208

Tool use was historically believed to be… (x1)But evidence otherwise includes… (x4)Leading to conclusions that… (x1)

Answer 208

Historically seen as evidence of unique human intelligenceGoodall found first instance, in chimps, more animals since - rooks Chimps use rocks to crack nuts, sticks for ants, leaves as toilet-paperGorillas use stick to check water depth, dig for foodOrangutan seen trying to spear fishGreat apes more intelligent than others

Question 209

Characteristics/evidence that indicates primate social intelligence… (x5)

Answer 209

40% of time spent grooming – forming social bondsDominance hierarchies: knowing rank allows assessment of competition; 3rd and 4th largest males will team up to access mates = selection of social intelligence over physical attributes – rank relates to who you know, not just size…Know who’s related to who: played infant monkey, mother looked to speaker, others looked to motherDeception: eg grooming each other out of sight of alpha maleCooperation: eg to escape enclosure – only seen in great apes

Question 210

Social learning by orang-utans was only observed in testing behaviours if… (x3)

Answer 210

Researcher mimicked their behaviour exactlyAs if orang-utan is checking to see if researcher will copy themShown in all great ape species

Question 211

Rudimentary culture/social inheritance is shown in chimps through… (x1)Which is not a result of… (x1)And eg of… (x1)

Answer 211

Sticks used differently to get ants, as are rocks/wood to crack nutsEnvironment = change in behaviour: are doing same behaviour differently = rudimentary cultureHi-5 grooming position is only within certain group of chimps

Question 212

History of the study of communication in monkeys…(x3)Conclusion…(x1)

Answer 212

Max Mueller in 1860s/70s: no other system is open-ended like humanRichard Garner 1890: studied the ‘simian tongue’ using playback studies with edison’s phonograph; claimed to decipher monkey words; study was a disaster in AfricaMarler et al 1980s: rediscovered playback approach; found specific sounds by different animals – words? And use of deception monkeys do it, but others let happen/don’t realise it’s happeningNo evidence for non-human syntactical language

Question 213

Teaching language to apes… (x4)

Answer 213

Insufficient vocal apparatus, lack of vocal tract/facial muscle controlSuccessful learning of American sign language: chimps, eg Washoe; gorillas, eg Koko knows 1000 signs; orang-utans, eg ChantekAnd also symbols: Terrace argues for behaviourst principles, but this doesn’t hold for…Kanzi and lexigramsBut no grammar/generativity

Question 214

Pretence in great apes and humans… (x3)

Answer 214

The world as it is, and may be – 2 simultaneous representations that don’t get confusedGreat apes and 2yo humans play pretendEg chimp in the wild carrying log, pretending it’s a child – most evidence in captive apes

Question 215

Why does the gap between humans and apes appear so large? (x4)

Answer 215

View of linear evolution from ape to upright human is incorrectAfter the split from chimps, at least 23 species of humans existed, all more closely related to us than chimps are, sometimes sharing the planet eg at 50 000 yrs agoWiping out of all these creates appearance of a big gap: genocide/wiping out as we spreadGap grows as we wipe out more species

Question 216

Are we testing animals’ abstract thought, language, imitation, concepts with right tasks? Biased by our own perceptual system? (x6)

Answer 216

Crows refining twigs to get grubs – learning/trial and error, or problem-solving?Orang-utans helping with laundry – mimicry or true learning?Imitation needs and immediately good performance, otherwise it’s trial/errorDolphins can understand/imitate first time, from human actions tooPigeons can form concept of trees, and that Picasso differs from Monet – but can’t tell abstract, eg lines are unequalAbstract/counting: humans can to 7-8 items instantly, from working memory, chimp has to count them up

Question 217

Outline the history of intelligence testing

Answer 217

Francis Galton - scatterplots of many human traits, intel as measuring energy/sensitive to stimuli, no correlation with grades/predictive validityAlfred Binet - calculated mental age, hi/lower than chronological = ‘defective’Stern 1912 - intelligence quotient, mental x chrono/100, restriction of range/invalid across lifespanModern IQ - not actually quotient, normally dist for age range

Question 218

What is the nature of intelligence testing? (IQ associations with…) (x4)

Answer 218

Cognitive correlatesBiological correlatesIndividual diffsGroups diffs

Question 219

What are three approaches taken to assessing intelligence? (x3)

Answer 219

Psychometric - correlational and hierarchicalAnthropologicalSystems models

Question 220

What is Sternberg’s triachic theory of intelligence, 1999?

Answer 220

Based on idea that intel = success/adaptabilityAnalytic/componential intel – measured by conventional testCreative/experiential – measured through creativity tasks Practical/contextual – measure through practical reasoning tasks

Question 221

What are the issues associated with observed individual and group diffs in intelligence (x5)

Answer 221

Are they social or genetic? Tests biased to educated peopleMore info access? Better education/food? Gender diffs and upbringing – choice of toys etc Individual diffs overlook what intels people have in common

Question 222

Define intelligence (x2)

Answer 222

1997 Pinker: the ability to attain goals in the face of obstacles by means of decisions based on rational rulesBoring 1923: it is what intelligence tests measure. A circular def, but: diffs on tests were stable over time, children improve with age, relative rank tends to be same, people good at one part of test tend to be good at others

Question 223

Characteristics of modern IQ tests (x1)And three types

Answer 223

Use norms of a normal distribution, percentiles and deviation IQStanford-Binet was devised for children, average = 100, SD = 9Wechsler scales use: Average for your age = 100, SD = 15Raven’s progressive matrices: non-verbal, multi-cultural

Question 224

Describe the Wechsler scale of IQ testing - WAIS/WISC (x6)

Answer 224

Average for your age = 100, SD = 15Verbal (comprehension, vocab, digit span etc) and Performance tests (eg using patterned blocks to reproduce given design)CulturalUses timing as value placed on quick thinkingVery intensive todo/administer

Question 225

Describe Raven’s progressive matrices of intelligence testing (x5)

Answer 225

Non-verbalMulti-culturalStandard test has a ceiling effect – use advanced matrix for those in higher intel environmentsCan be untimed, usually 30-40 minutesCorrelates highly with WAIS

Question 226

Psychometric properties of intelligence tests (reliability/validity checks) (x6)

Answer 226

Concurrent and predictive validity: results correlate across elements of test, and predict performance Test-retest reliability: individual scores same on repeated testingAlternate forms reliability: similar results on different testsInterrater reliability: same result by different administratorsStandardisation: conditions the same for all test takersNorms: translation of raw scores into scaled relative performance – need updating, to account for eg Flynn effect, where scores increase over time

Question 227

Describe the distribution of IQ in society (x4)

Answer 227

Bell curve: evidence of stratification by IQ, gap is widening, top end starting to fattenCorrelated with occupational and social outcomes, ie low = doing work that requires constant supervision, higher chance of divorceNot causal; different opps in life; scores affected by schooling, nutrition etcIQ is potential + environment

Question 228

What are the cognitive correlates of IQ (x3)

Answer 228

Working memory: ability to hold multi items in mind and manipulate predicts IQProcessing speed predicts IQ: higher IQ faster lexical speed and choice reaction timeInspection time task: which is shorter of two lines shown for different inspection times; minimum time on 9 out of 10 tests = IT; controls for speed/accuracy trade-off

Question 229

What are the biological variables that contribute to individual diffs in IQ? (x4)

Answer 229

Heritability: eg disease prohibiting the eating of certain foods/amino acids = brain damage; IQ relates to parents/twinsNutrition: malnutrition = lower IQLead exposure decreases IQPrenatal exposure to alcohol, aspirin, antibiotics = lower IQ

Question 230

What are the biological correlates of IQ? (x1)As shown by… (x1)

Answer 230

PET scans show lower glucose consumption in higher IQ = neuronal efficiency Tetris newbies use more during play than experts or high IQ

Question 231

What are the social variables that contribute to individual diffs in IQ? (x5)And one falsely believed to?

Answer 231

Tests biased to educated peopleBoring/repetitive job lowers IQSchooling: almost a yr apart in same grade, will converge around class meanFamily environment: exposure to big words improves vocabLife opps: socio-economics etcInterventions: baby genius programs – don’t work on IQ but possible increase in specific skill; same for increased WM in adults to raise IQ – effects not replicated

Question 232

Describe group diffs in IQ (x4)

Answer 232

Intergenerational Flynn effectGender diffs in mental rotation: males better, but genetic or upbringing – choice of toys etc?Females better at verbal tasks – same questions…Racial diffs: Asians 1-2 points higher than whites, tests are normed on whites, African-Americans 1 SD lower; used to argue for segregation, but likely social diffs

Question 233

Describe three psychometric models of intelligence based on correlation between tasks on IQ tests

Answer 233

Thurstone 1938 proposed 7 primary mental abilities: verbal comprehension and fluency, inductive reasoning, spatial visualisation, number, memory and perceptual speedGuildford’s 1965 ‘rubix-cube’ model: 120, updated to 150 factors involving operations x products x contents – popularity ltd by complexitySpearman’s 1927 g (general) factor + some set of specific factors (s)

Question 234

Describe two hierarchical psychometric models of intelligence

Answer 234

Raymond Cattelll 1965 division of g into: fluid – abstractions, eg inductive reasoning, analogies; and crystallised – facts, vocab, general knowledge etcCarroll’s 1993 went further: 8 facets of g (fluid and general, general memory, learning, visual/auditory perception, retrieval ability, cognitive and processing speed) - subdivided further into about 60 factors

Question 235

What are the issues of psychometric approaches to intelligence? (x5)

Answer 235

Lead to contradicting conclusions of nature of intelligence, and Use similar approaches, so diff to test against each otherGood at 2 things for unrelated reasons? Individual diffs overlook what intels people have in commonSample sizes – restricted range of participants, tasks and contexts

Question 236

Anthropological approaches to intelligence view… (x1)And promote which two types of testing?

Answer 236

Intel as a cultural invention: diff ideas of smartness, eg we value speed, but it’s not a factor of wisdom, which remains outside current approachesCulture-fair tests are still biased: our culture has done test since at lease 5 yo, others will have diff thought processesCulturally relevant tests have been attempted, but aren’t the norm

Question 237

Systems models of intelligence involve… (x1)And two major theories of…

Answer 237

Involve lit reviews of available data, but ltd empirical researchHoward Gardner’s multiple intelligencesSternberg’s triachic theory 1999

Question 238

Describe Howard Gardner’s systems model of multiple intelligences (x2), and issues with (x2)

Answer 238

More diverse range of skills, with independent factors – inter/intrapersonal, musical etcValues diff abilitiesIssues with empirical support – factors do correlateTalents rather than intelligences?

Question 239

What is the Flynn effect?

Answer 239

That intelligence has been rising across generationsTrue change or access to info?

Question 240

Describe attention (x3)

Answer 240

Concentration and focusing of mental effortSelecting what is relevant from sensory input and processing it for appropriate action – the prioritising of cognitive operations, in order to allow response selectionDoes not exist separately from cog processes – is an organiser of, in line with our goals

Question 241

Describe early vs late selection issues in attention (x2 plus 2)

Answer 241

Broadbent’s filter theory: perceptual features, eg voice etc, used to filter out irrelevant message; a structural model – filter stops info flow through systemNo semantic processing of unattended info, but still bias outcomes, shown by: River bank/money bank experimentLate selection theories: that everything is processed semantically, and then selection occurs2 responses (tap and shadow) can’t be organised to 2 inputs at same time, so difficult to critically test theory

Question 242

Differentiate feature/conjunction search

Answer 242

Feature search used to distinguish target on 1 simple featureIs pre-attentive: rapid, automatic, unconscious, parallel processingConjunction search used when object defined by number of features, eg Where’s WallyIs focussed: slower, requires, attention, serial processing

Question 243

Outline FIT (feature integration theory) (x3)

Answer 243

Human visual search is result of two distinct search processes:Pre-attentive (single feature) or focussed (conjunctions)Serial is slow, but efficient in terms of enabling more complex processing than could be otherwise achieved given neural constraints on capacity to form automatic detector for every possible combo of features

Question 244

Describe evidence for endogenous control of visual attention in visual cuing tasks (x5)

Answer 244

Contingent capture Roger RemingtonNot stimulus driven exogenous capture – what we see is what we’re set forSpatial cue is given about location of upcoming targetIf it’s defined as red, red cue captures attention even if not predictive of target positionWhereas a bright highlight (green) doesn’t capture

Question 245

What is the rationale of RSVP? (x6)

Answer 245

To examine temporal rather than spatial attentionOne location, time pressuredLetters etc displayed after one another in same location, about 100ms/itemPs asked to look for certain targets, then asked questions about them at the endConceptual/semantic processing shown even at this rate by Mary PotterPost-target intrusions common (confusing features of target)

Question 246

Describe the AB (x5)

Answer 246

When the processing of task 1 causes interference with task 2 - a failure of awarenessEstablished through two-target RSVPT1 and T2 will be flashed in amongst 13 other numbers/symbolsFind impairment at a few hundred msOut to about T1 + 6, but not seen at T1 + 1 – processed as one event

Question 247

What are three popular theories of the AB?

Answer 247

1. Chun and Potter 2 stage model: 2. Boost and bounce theory, Olivers and Meeter 20083. Wybel’s Episodic Simultaneous Type Serial Token – a computational model (mathematical expression)

Question 248

What are three key concepts of attention?

Answer 248

Capturing attention: out of our control/bottom-up; guided by expectations/top-downSelective attention: responding to relevant/ignoring irrelevantDivided attention: among concurrent tasks

Question 249

Describe Chun and Potter 2 stage model of the AB (x4)

Answer 249

Items matched with memory representation (conceptual processing)Then consolidated in WM in order to report AB due to limits on memory consolidation of T2 – as T1 not yet completedFits that more difficult T1 to process, harder T2 will be

Question 250

Describe Olivers and Meeter 2008 Boost and bounce theory of the AB

Answer 250

Boost increases the activation Bounce inhibits distractor activationAB due to lag in rise of boost and bounceDistractor immediate after T1 gets some of the boost/accesses working memoryThen selection of distractor causes strong bounce which affects T2 So inhibition deployed to help target selection causes the ABDoesn’t explain AB for sequential targets: even when no distractor to cause bounce, still get an AB - more capacity limits than strategic effect

Question 251

Describe Wybel’s Episodic Simultaneous Type Serial Token – a computational model (mathematical expression) of the AB (x4)

Answer 251

Type is representation used to ID something Token is representation of particular occurrence of something Combine to record stimulus occurrence in space/time – where/whenWM encoding suppresses attention to new distractors = AB

Question 252

Three explanations of attentional limitations are…

Answer 252

Structures – often shown using box and arrow models: bottleneck/reaction time models strongly predict behaviours; shut the gate – to exclude rest of info; stores for info retentionProcesses: resources with capacities are specific but open to manipulation depending on task demand; divide resources to limit attentional costs etc; improve resources through training (maybe)Strategic: developed strategies used to manipulate attention; limitations = coordinating action

Question 253

Describe the river bank/money bank experiment

Answer 253

Attended message had homograph (same written form but different meaning) – ‘they threw stones at the bank’ Unattended message had river or unrelated control word Ps to choose sentences closest in meaning to the attended message More likely to choose river meaning if ‘river’ occurred in unattendedMust have processed the meaning of river, although couldn’t say they’d heard it

Question 254

Endogenous control of attention is… (x4)Eg (x1)

Answer 254

Shifting attention voluntarilyDirected by goalsInternalTop-downTune out conversation to listen to another

Question 255

Exogenous control is… (x2)Eg (x1)

Answer 255

Automatic response to important stimulusBotton-upAttention captured by hearing friend’s name in conversation

Question 256

Inattention blindnes is… (x1)Eg experiment (x1)

Answer 256

A phenomena of endogenous control of attentionGorilla experiment – looking for the gorilla makes you miss the curtains changing colour, and the team-member who leaves part way through

Question 257

Change blindness is… (x2)Eg experiments (x2)

Answer 257

A phenomena of endogenous control of attention - related to inattention blindnessFailure to notice change of stimuliEg objects on a table (Nevin and Simons 1997), the interviewer’s appearance/gender after builders walk through with cladding sheet (Simons and Levin 1998

Question 258

Unilateral neglect is… (x1)And results form… (x1)Providing neurophysiological evidence for (x1)

Answer 258

Inattention to other side of spaceNot just visual, but attentional deficit - joining contralateral objects with lines eliminates problemSeparate what vs where and when processing

Question 259

Limitations of the ‘spotlight’ concept of attention are highlighted by… (x3)ie (x1)

Answer 259

Inattention and change blindness Unilateral neglectIt’s not just where you look

Question 260

Debate over whether attention and consciousness are the same thing continues… (x2)

Answer 260

They’re separate: things get to awareness sometimes without attention; argument for evolved capacity to let important stuff break throughThey’re involved, attention is gateway to consciousness, but no solid examples of things you don’t need to attend to in order for it to enter consciousness

Question 261

Dichotic listening tasks are used to identify… (x1)And involve… (x6)Results led to formation of… (x1)

Answer 261

The fate of unattended to infoPs hear a different message in each ear concurrently, through headphonesAttend to 1 message, and shadow it (repeat aloud as heard)Shadow ear – the one that’s attended toLook at how the two messages interact, what they noticed: the physical features – speech vs music, and gender, pitch tone of voiceBut not meaning – considered to be the end goal of processingCan sometimes hear own names, but not accents or meaning of other messagesEarly selection models of attention, eg Broadbent’s filter theory

Question 262

Nellie Lavie’s Load Theory of atterntion selection holds that is… (x1)

Answer 262

Depends on the cognitive load of task involved

Question 263

Debate over attentional control continues over whether it’s … (x2)Evidence points at… (x1)

Answer 263

Resources (which could be changed) vs Capacity (bottleneck supported by evidence)

Question 264

Kahneman, 1973 proposed attentional control as processing capacity based on processes rather than structures… (x3)

Answer 264

Attention as process of allocating resources to inputsConcurrent tasks possible contingent on difficultyResources are increased under arousal (motivation)

Question 265

Capacity theory of attention control proposes… (x1)And is tested through… (x2)

Answer 265

Limited general resourcesDivided attention attention tasksConcurrent task limits set by task difficulty

Question 266

Visual attention is assessed through… (x1)Involving… (x4)

Answer 266

Visual search tasksIdentify the object among the distractorsMeasure reaction time or accuracy – speed/accuracy trade-offResponse latency (RT) is primary DV: increases as identification, decision making or response selection get difficultAccuracy a better DV for difficult/time-pressured tasks

Question 267

Two limitations of FIT…

Answer 267

Features don’t always pop-out – such as in change-blindnessConfigural patterns can over-ride basic featuresHeterogeneity (difference) or homogeneity (similarity) of distractors – much harder if all distractors are different

Question 268

Contingent capture is…(x1)And involves… (x3)That counters which theories? (x1)

Answer 268

A form of top-down control in visual searchWhat we see is what we’re set forSpatial cue is given about location of upcoming targetIf its defined as red, then red cue captures attention even if not predictive of target position, whereas a bright highlight (green) doesn’t captureExogenous/FIT theories

Question 269

Masking in vision is… (x1)And pattern masks… (x2)

Answer 269

When two stimuli shown close together, one stimulus masks anotherInterfere with target processingCompete with targets to engage perceptual processing – they ensure brief stimuli don’t reach awareness

Question 270

Discriminating targets from distractors involves… (x2)

Answer 270

Attentional set: preparedness to select target features/reject distractorsAttentional engagement: locking attention onto targets

Question 271

Feature detectors are… (x1)Which fit into which theory of visual attention?

Answer 271

Modules/processors each of which detects a colour, or shape (e.g., angle/line) whenever it appears in the processors locationTreisman’s FIT

Question 272

RSVP is… (x4)

Answer 272

Rapid Serial Visual Presentation - visual attention task, finds the ABStream of about 12 items – letters, digits, words, pictures – presented in a fixed locationItems occur one at a time, at about 100 ms per itemPosition of T2 relative to T1 is varied – the lagPs report items at the end of each stream, need to ignore distractors

Question 273

The lag-dependent deficit in T2 accuracy in RSVP results is… (x3)

Answer 273

The ABThe fewer items between T1 and T2, the lower is T2 accuracyAccuracy recovers by about lag 8 (T2 is the 8th item after T1)

Question 274

Lag-1 sparing in RSVP results is…

Answer 274

(about half the time)T2 accuracy is unaffected at lag 1 (when immediately preceded by T1)And then the AB deficit appears at lag 2

Question 275

What are the two main classes of theories regarding the AB?

Answer 275

Capacity: the brain is fullAttentional control is lost

Question 276

What is task switching? (x5)

Answer 276

Executive control operationContributes to dual task performance, AB limitationsComes with accuracy/RT costsSmall if stimuli and responses differ – eg number task alternating with word taskMajor if Ps changes task, = rule for common stimulus configurationIsn’t Ps forgetting occasionally what to do next: not occasional slow trials, but consistent slowing over the RT distribution

Question 277

What are the key findings of Jersild’s 1927 task-switching paradigm? (x3)In a procedure involving… (x1)

Answer 277

Established that block of trials where two tasks are alternated takes longer than if tasks are repeatedSevere switch costs when task changes – enough to cover 8m stopping distance in a carChanges are regular/predictableAABB, AAABBB etc, using simple responses to digits or letters – practice/fatigue effects thus matched over switch and same task trials

Question 278

What do task switching findings imply for the source of switching costs? (x3)

Answer 278

That they come in two parts: Establishing appropriate task set, and disengaging the inappropriateStill present when repetition effects controlledEven when motivation, fatigue, practice addressed, and RTs decrease, a residual switch cost remains - necessary to consider both endogenous and exogenous control

Question 279

What are the characteristics of automaticity? (x6)Egs (x2)

Answer 279

Without awareness; orConscious deliberation; orExpenditure of resources.Fast and accurateRigid/habitual Allows concurrent performanceDriving car, riding bike, automatically reading the word in Stroop task; association of concepts – salt activates pepper

Question 280

What situation produce automaticity (vs controlled processes)? (x2)

Answer 280

PracticeOver-learning

Question 281

Describe the Baddeley/Hitch model of WM?

Answer 281

WM material goes after few seconds if not refreshedLtd to 4-7 items – info is displaced by newVs lTM: more permanent traces, unknown capacity, forgetting through interference and possibly decayConstant interplay of WM and LTM in perceiving, speaking, actionCentral executive co-ordinates the ‘slave’ systems that store info:Phonological loop, visuo-spatial sketchpad, and (recently added, contentious) episodic buffer that links info across visual/verbal/spatial domains

Question 282

How is the Baddeley Hitch model of WM linked to attentional control? (x2)

Answer 282

Attending to something puts it in WMWM involved in directing attention

Question 283

What key findings evaluate the Baddeley/Hitch model of WM/attentional control?

Answer 283

Central executive interference by concurrent tasks, eg chess, problem solvingVerbal info decay after 2 secs if not rehearsedDiff in recall ability for short vs long words

Question 284

What are the limitations of the Baddeley/Hitch model of WM/attentional control? (x2)

Answer 284

Doesn’t adequately explain how stores interact, Or interplay of WM and LTM

Question 285

Task set is… (x3)

Answer 285

Preparation to perform one task rather than anotherTakes selection, linking, enabling modules for task components – eg perception, response selectionLinks to irrelevant modules must be disabled

Question 286

Repetition suppression is… (x1)

Answer 286

When there is less response to second stimuli in task-switching paradigm

Question 287

Rogers and Monsell, 1995 used the AABB task-switching paradigm to establish that… (x2)In a procedure involving… (x7)

Answer 287

Switch costs still present when switches are predictableCuing reduces costs, but doesn’t eliminate themStimuli – digit/letter pair, eg G7, B2Digit task – right button for odd digit, left for evenLetter task – right button vowel, left consonantTask cue: stim in one of four boxes – letter task for top two, digit for lowerRecord accuracy and latency for switch vs non-switch trialsImprovement on day 2, esp for switch trial – so still some practice effectsBut large switch cost still present, despite predictability

Question 288

The effects of practice and task difficulty on costs associated with switching tasks are… (x2)Which tells us that the… (x1)

Answer 288

Reduced but not eliminated with practice of separate tasks and switching tasksHarder to switch from hard task to easier one, than other way round; eg the stroop task, from colour naming to word namingCost of disengaging from the prior task is a major factor – requires more effort/concentration, so is difficult

Question 289

Meiran’s 1996 study into the effects of preparation time vs delay since last trial on switching costs found that… (x2)In a study involving… (x3)

Answer 289

There is alway residual cost, despite task prep - so this isn’t whole storyResidual costs are exogenous/ stimulus driven: can’t make decisions for next trial until stim presented and ID’d; response selection on switch trials subject to interference from prior trialPs to give position of disk (up, down vs left, right) given pretrial cueVaried cue-to-next-stim interval and last-response-to-cue intervalShort cue-to-stimulus interval = large switch cost, even if long delay since last trial

Question 290

Rogers/Monsell paradigm also established attentional switching costs of task congruity, finding that… (x4)

Answer 290

RT impaired by using different button or same for responsesTask congruity, eg for letter-difit stimulus, letter task trialVowel letter + odd digit required the right button, so were congruentVowel letter + even digit = different buttons, so incongruent – leads to slower response than congruent

Question 291

Theories of task switching costs differ in roles of… (x3)

Answer 291

Active preparation – endogenous factorInterference effects from prior task/set that dissipate passively over timeWhether exogenous factors play a role

Question 292

Summarise three theories of task switching/residual costs

Answer 292

Disengagement theory: Proactive interference which decays after several minutesEndogenous + exogenous factors: Rogers & Monsell: preparation requires time; switch cost reduced as preparation time increasesEndogenous only theory, de Jong (2000): Ps do not prepare adequately on every trial.

Question 293

Kahneman’s capacity theory of automaticity is that… (x1)

Answer 293

Over-learned tasks become automatic and consume few resources

Question 294

Shiffrin and Schneider’s 1977 study into categorical/consistent and mixed/varied mapping in automaticity found that… (x2)

Answer 294

Categorical condition (targets and distractors remain distinct): Ps learn target, respond as soon as they see oneNo simple response rule in mixed condition (eg B as target, or distractor in diff trial) = less accurate detection

Question 295

Logan’s 1988 theory of automaticity is that… (x4)

Answer 295

Automaticity as a memory trace that continuously builds, not all/nonePractice = storage of info and how to respond Automaticity as single-step direct access of past solutionWithout practice, need thought and rule application

Question 296

Issues with traditional automaticity criteria… (x4)Leading to the conclusion that… (x1)

Answer 296

Many ‘automatic’ processes don’t meet themInterference if stim/response similar - shown in dichotic listeningLack of awareness also in some intentional tasks Or awareness of routinised task aspects = loss of link with intentionAutomaticity is dependent on situation

Question 297

The central executive is… (x4)

Answer 297

Part of the Baddeley/Hitch model of WMAttention controller between WM slave systems and LTM No storage capacity of its ownControl of encoding/retrieval strategies, switching attention, mental manipulation

Question 298

The functioning of the Baddeley/Hitch CE is revealed in… (x3)

Answer 298

Random letter/number - worse during concurrent tasksInterference shown during chess (reasoning), problem solving, mental arithmeticie shown to influence many higher level functions

Question 299

The phonological loop is… (x5)

Answer 299

Part of the Baddeley/Hitch model of WMMaintains verbal, sequential info in sound-based codeVital for language development and memoryInfo decays after 2 secs without rehearsal maintenance, which can also enter info into storeEg tasks: remembering number, recipe, instructions in short term, digit span

Question 300

Four key effects of the phonological loop (Baddeley/Hitch model)

Answer 300

Phonological similarity: hard to remember things with similar soundsIrrelevant/unattended speech: impairs serial verbal recall of visually presented materialWord length: performance decreases with increased spoken duration lengthConcurrent articulation/suppression effect: performance drops when verbalising concurrent to memory task

Question 301

The phonological similarity effect (Baddeley/Hitch model - phonological loop) is that… (x2)As shown by… (x2)

Answer 301

Much harder to remember things with similar soundsDistinct from LTM: more about meaning/semantics – ST is phonologyConrad 1964 found most confusion in immediate serial (ordered) recall for letters with similar sounding names; ie in BGVPT than YHWKRBaddeley 1966 found 9.6% recall of phonologically similar sequences (mad, man, mat, cap, cad, cat etc) and 82% recall of controls (cow, day, bar, hot)

Question 302

The irrelevant/unattended speech effect (Baddeley/Hitch model - phonological loop) is… (x5)Two different interpretations are…

Answer 302

Speech impairs serial verbal recall of visually presented materialNonwords, Arabic and backward speech interfere – not meaning dependentMusic can interfereWhite noise doesn’tIntensity of auditory stim not importantBaddeley: obligatory access to phono store needed by speechDylan Jones: not - due to interference with tones and music (although not repetition of single speech sound)

Question 303

The word length effect (Baddely/Hitch model - phonological loop) is… (x1)As shown by… (x3)Two interpretations are…

Answer 303

Performance decreases with increased word (spoken duration) lengthBaddeley et al 1975 presented 408 item auditory lists (written down for referenceFound 20% recall of long words – association, representative etcAnd 56% of short – sum, hate, harm, witReflects speed of subvocal rehearal, and hence memory trace refresh rateCowan: delays at output associated with longer articulation time of long items – more forgotten in time it takes to say ‘representative’ than ‘dog’

Question 304

The concurrent articulation/articulatory suppression effect (Baddely/Hitch model - phonological loop) is… (x3)Interpretation… (x2)

Answer 304

Performance drops when verbalising at same time as memory taskRepeating eg lalala, hiya, the diminishes serial recall and abolishes word length effectPhono similarity effect removed by articulation with visual but not auditory presentationsInterpretation: eliminates subvocal rehearsal; impairs phono recoding of visual materialSilent articulation interferes, but non-speech actions (chewing) don’t

Question 305

The visuo-spatial sketchpad is… (x4)

Answer 305

Part of the Baddeley/Hitch model of WMVisuo-spatial rather than verbal encoding - blind can do itDivided into visual cache stores and visual patternsTested with tasks: memory for unnameable shapes/patterns, navigation and tracking

Question 306

Functions of the visuo-spatial sketchpad (Baddeley/Hitch model) (x5)

Answer 306

Planning/executing spatial tasks – sport, drivingManipulating visual images – eg skilled abacus users manipulate beads in imagery, as real movements too slowTrack changes in visual perceptual world Maintain orientation and direct movementComprehending certain verbal info (in navigation etc)

Question 307

Cowan 1998 proposed one of two alternatives to the Baddeley/Hitch model of working memory, that focus on capacity and active processing over structural/passive (x3)

Answer 307

Info transfer in/out of stores doesn’t capture dynamic nature of WMPart of LTM is active in WM to meet demand of current task, eg text comprehension, And is accessible by fast-acting retrieval cues

Question 308

What is the difference between episodic and semantic memories? (x2)Plus eg test questions for each

Answer 308

Record of our experiences: context-sensitive, personal, autobiographical; ‘did you see a hippo last week?’, ‘did the word hippo appear in the list you saw earlier?’; vs Contextual, abstract, non-autobiographical; ‘what is a hippo?’, ‘read/identify hippo’

Question 309

What is the recency effect? (x2)

Answer 309

Shown in the serial position curveThe fact that recall for items is higher for those presented last than the lowest point (at middle)Items are still in WM

Question 310

What is the primacy effect? (x2)

Answer 310

Shown in the serial position curveThe fact that item recall is highest for those at the beginning of sequence Reflects transfer into LTM

Question 311

What are the differences between STM and LTM? (x3)

Answer 311

STM is workspace for current actions, few seconds/minutesForgetting, unless rehearsed, which, if for long enough, also helps move it into theLTM vast capacity for long-term retention; supports short-term store – ID words/objects etc; needs deliberate retrieval

Question 312

What are the issues of Atkinson/Shiffrin’s modal memory model? (x2)

Answer 312

Not rehearsal, but depth of processing that gets things into LTMNot as simple as the box/arrow set-up

Question 313

How does Atkinson/Shiffrin’s modal memory model explain memory? (x4)

Answer 313

Environmental info goes into…Sensory memory – iconic/visual/auditory etc, few hundred ms; modes for touch, vision etc; high capacity, fast decay unless moved with attention to the…STM - use for actions, rehearsal gets stuff into the…LTM

Question 314

Describe the components of typical episodic memory tasks? (x4)

Answer 314

Study phase – word, few seconds each; perform task on each, eg rate pleasantnessRetention interval – minutes, hrs, days; then eitherRecall test – say/write words from study list; orRecognition test – was the word X in the study list? yes/no, old/new

Question 315

What are the diffs between explicit and implicit memory tests? (x2)Plus performance by brain injured?

Answer 315

Explicit/direct: Ps told they should retrieve items, do so deliberately/intentionally – brain injured often very poor on explicit testsBut may perform well on implicit: when asked to ID items or ‘give first thing that comes to mind’ – showing effects of study on memory

Question 316

What are the main causes of forgetting? (x2)

Answer 316

Decay may play role, researchers agree thatInterference and other effects located at retrieval are more important

Question 317

What have experiments shown about false memories? (x3)

Answer 317

Memory retrieval is super-malleable A reconstructive process (through cue and context),And reinforce difficult of accurately recovering source info

Question 318

What have experiments shown about memory inhibition? (x3)

Answer 318

Anderson showed that unpracticed target can be inhibited by practice of other items, and thatInhibition during practice removes competition between blood and other words that belong with REDBut failures to replicate results

Question 319

What have experiments shown about forgetting? (x2)

Answer 319

Is more interference than decay Time since stimulus is much lower effect than increasing the number of stim before testing

Question 320

What is memory? (x1)

Answer 320

Actionable preserved experience, inc sensation, emotions, thoughts, beliefs

Question 321

What are three possible recall tests in memory studies?

Answer 321

Free recall – any order Ps wishesSerial recall – in order studiedCued recall – cue provided

Question 322

What are three possible recognition tests in memory studies?

Answer 322

Single item recognition – each item presented one time for new/old decisionChoice test – which word is old? Eg house – cottageAssociated recognition – were pepper and elephant studies as a pair?

Question 323

The memory of a human is… (x7)

Answer 323

Slow, powerful parallel processor Organised by experiences/significanceAccess-cue less well specified – computer has particular cue for extracting particular memory, humans are less specific/more tangentialPart of experience is stored, dep on relevanceInfo reinterpreted/distorted over time and during retrievalGeneralisation and composite memories, interferenceSource info can be lost

Question 324

A computer memory is… (x7)

Answer 324

Rapid, accurate, serialOrganised by topic, date, place etcAccessed from pre-defined cueComplete/accurate representationsInfo not altered during storage/retrievalMemories remain separateDetails of context and source retained

Question 325

Our memory system needs… (x2)All to be done while… (x1)

Answer 325

Access to past experience and relevant info that help with current situation, andForgetting of similar/irrelevant memoriesContinuing other actions

Question 326

What is Loftus’ misinformation effect? (x1)

Answer 326

Leading question can = recalling something suggested during prior questioning, and not realising the source of this info

Question 327

What is the serial position curve? (x2)

Answer 327

Central finding on memory that dates back to Ebbinghaus/Murdock 1962Showing highest recall for items at beginning of sequence (primacy effect), lowest in the middle, and rising again at the end (recency effect)

Question 328

Traditional tests of memory include variations of… (x4)

Answer 328

Item types, eg faces, pictures, abstract shapesNumber of items – single items vs pairs/groups; single items vs associationsOne study trial/item vs severalCues/not provided

Question 329

Interpretation of the results of memory tests must consider… (x2)

Answer 329

Response bias or good memory? 90% correct on old items just that Ps says old most of the time? Accuracy scores best interpreted when FA are lowHits between groups can be compared if FA are low and similar

Question 330

How can we eliminate response bias in memory tests? (x5)

Answer 330

Need to separate signal from bias – take into account False Alarms, old responses to new itemsHit – correctly IDing on old itemMiss – incorrectly calling an item newFA – incorrect detection of new stimulus (saying it is old)CR – correct ID of new item

Question 331

What can increase bias in memory test responses? (x2)

Answer 331

Incentives/demand characteristics, eg being offered 50 cents for correct recogPresentation in distinctive context/background: new face in old background = inc in recognition of new faces = inc bias

Question 332

What methodological steps (plus eg) can be taken to reduce bias in memory test responses? (x4)

Answer 332

Items in diff conditions must be similar as possible,eg high or low frequency words – impairment or difficulty of words? Or diff might give clues as to what is old/newBetween groups – use same item setsWithin-groups – match item sets, or counterbalance

Question 333

Implicit/semantic memory can be tested by… (x4)Which all show… (x1)

Answer 333

Lexical decision task (LDT): make quick word/no-word decision for each letter string; Name a briefly presented word, eg kitchenComplete the word stem, eg ki___Free association: first word thought of when I say cook?Implicit memory through influences on performance of previously seen words - priming

Question 334

Schacter/Tulving/Wang 1981 showed implicit memory in Korsakoff’s (vitamin B deficiency/impaired acquisition of new memories) by… (x2)Showing that… (x1)

Answer 334

Asked multi-choice trivia, then put questions back in the pile;Repeated questions were better answered, but Ps unable to say they’d seen them beforeExplicit memory lost, but still semantic effects – unable to use contextual and source info

Question 335

What are issues around decay as the cause of forgetting? (x2)

Answer 335

Originally believed to fade through lack of use, but is circular hypothesisJenkins/Dallebach found greater memory loss in awake people - concluded interference as larger source

Question 336

What are the two types of interference effects in retrieval of memories?

Answer 336

Proactive: old info blocks new, eg recall of short words lists decreases as number of prior lists increasesRetroactive: new info blocks old, eg earlier list recall worse than that of current

Question 337

Baddely/Hitch showed interference in memory retrieval through which study…Leading to the conclusion that… (x2)

Answer 337

Rugby players in the pub exhibited much more memory loss with increased number of games played since, than time elapsed Forgetting is more interference than decayTime since stimulus is much lower effect than increasing the number of stim before testing

Question 338

What are the conceptual and practical issues of memory suppression/inhibition? (x4)

Answer 338

Traumatic events often very well-remembered, due to effects of arousal on memory encodingDifficult to establish historical factsEvent in childhood may not be well understood at the time – memories poorly retrieved because fragmented/difficult to interpret

Question 339

What experiments have shown the misinformation effect? (x2)

Answer 339

16% of Ps shown a Disney brochure with Bugs Bunny picture on it later had memory of meeting him there – impossible, as he’s a Warner Bros characterDeese, Roeidger, McDermott (DRM) paradigm: Ps shown related words (bed, dream, wake, tired), 50% will recall seeing sleep, and claim a clear memory of seeing it on list

Question 340

What are the three steps of an experiment to test memory inhibition, using 2 pairs of related words?

Answer 340

Ps presented with both pairs, fruit-banana, fruit-applePractice/repeat only one of the pairsTest recall for pairs of practiced/unpracticed/unrelated items