Emergence of Cognition

Question 1

Ebbinghaus: Explain his experiment

Answer 1

• Tried to study memory with nonsense syllables (ex. DEV, JPU, POK); He tried to remove meaning from the materials and treated memory as a unit
• Tested on himself (he felt that it was the best way to do the experiment repeatedly and effectively)
• Typically presented discrete lists at a fixed rate and timed how long it took him to learn lists completely
• Could get only seven syllables correct after a single presentation
• Also known for his work on long-term learning and retention

Question 2

Ebbinghaus: Explain the Learning Curve

Answer 2

• The graph shows the number of times it took Ebbinghaus to learn a list
• The amount of times it took him to remember decreased with more repetitions

Question 3

Ebbinghaus: Explain the Forgetting Curve

Answer 3

• Most of the information is forgotten almost immediately
• Memory at 100% at 0h since original learning (when first learned)
• Memory decreased to around 40% less than an hour after original learning

Question 4

What are Georg Muller’s contributions to cognition?

Answer 4

• Replicated Ebbinghaus’ experiments but also included a qualitative element by asking participants what they were thinking
• Learned that people could describe a number of cognitive strategies (e.g., assigning meaning, chunking)
• Explored conditions under which learning on one task would transfer to another (transfer appropriate processing)
• Didn’t like that Ebbinghaus tested on himself and tried to go about the replicate experiments in a more systematic manner

Question 5

What are Carl Stumpf’s contributions to cognition?

Answer 5

• Explore music, especially how tone is perceived and how it relates to emotion
• His work showed that perception is sensory
• Explored how combinations of different tones impacted auditory perception

Question 6

William James: Theory in his book, Primary/Secondary memory, Consciousness

Answer 6

• Published a book called ‘Principles of Psychology’, which includes a theory suggesting a stimulus causes a physical response and an emotion follows the response
• Distinguished primary memory from secondary memory (primary: the knowledge of an event, secondary: the additional consciousness that we have thought/experienced it before)
• Believes consciousness doesn’t form as building blocks/units, but rather flowed as a stream; a stream of consciousness that functioned as a set of processes

Question 7

Frederic Barlett’s Critique on Ebbinghaus

Answer 7

Lists of nonsense syllables set up mass of associations which may be more esoteric than real world settings

Question 8

Frederic Barlett’s Studies

Answer 8

• Used real (sometimes quite unusual) passages, pictures, etc.
• Used methods such as serial reproduction
• Examined qualitative aspects of recall to deduce some general principles

Question 9

What is a mental schema?

Answer 9

• A method of organising incoming information with past experiences/concepts
  OR
• A cognitive framework to explain mental processes

Question 10

Impact of Behaviourism and the Rise of Computers

Answer 10

• The rise of cognitive studies fell behind when behaviourism started to emerge
• Then when the concept of computers came, it brought along a lot of terminologies that helped make cognitive concepts/processes more digestible

Question 11

How many items can be stored in our short-term memory?

Answer 11

7

Question 12

Illustrate the Atkinson & Shiffrin Model

Answer 12

• Contains 3 systems that differ in terms of storage capacity and persistence of information
• Systems: (in the order “Info” passes through)
  1. Sensory Stores
  *lost to Decay, or
  *if given Attention, it proceeds to…
  2. Short-term Store
  *lost to Displacement, or
  *if given Rehearsal, it proceeds to…
  3. Long-term Store
  *lost to Interference, or
  *remains in Long-term Store

Question 13

Broadbent: Filter Model of Attention

Answer 13

Flow:
1. Senses
2. Very Short-term Store
3. Selective Filter
4. Limited Capacity Channel

Question 14

Baddeley and Hitch: Working Memory Model

Answer 14

Flow: (of which “Input” passes through)
1. Sensory Memory
*lost to Decay, or
*if given Attention, proceeds to
2. Central Executive
*two-way flow with each of the following systems: Visuo-spatial Scratchpad, Long-term Memory, Phonological Loop (consists of Articulatory control and Phonological store)

Question 15

Who are the two psychologists studying cognition in the late 19th century? And what were their approaches?

Answer 15

1. Hermann Ebbinghaus
   - Germany
   - Structuralist; Interested in the structure of consciousness
2. William James
   - America
   - Functionalist; Interested in the function of consciousness