Emerge Flashcards
1
Q
Economic causes
A
- Defeat in the Opium- Wars of 1839-42 and 1856-60 and by the Japanese in 1894-95.
- Industrialising nations led by Britain sought to profit in China and divided the country into “spheres of influence”.
- The feudal country with wealth was concentrated disproportionally in the hands of wealthy landlords, and the social hierarchy with the emperor on the very top was supported by Confucianism.
- Peasants were 80% of the population, while only around 10% of the land was arable, most of which was unusable due to flooding and natural disasters. It was worsened by the population growth from 120 m in 1712 to 440 m by 1900. Peasants paid up to 80% of their crops as rent to the landlords and prosperous peasants were only 10% of the population but owned 70% of the land.
- The economic crisis in the countryside in the 1920s and 1930s created fertile ground for the Communist Party’s promise of land reform and social justice.” — Maurice Meisner
- In contrast, Jon Halliday, co-author with Jung Chang of “Mao: The Unknown Story,” presents a more critical view. Halliday argues that economic factors in Mao’s rise were closely tied to manipulation, opportunism, and external support. Halliday posits that Mao’s ascent was significantly aided by Soviet financial and logistical backing, which provided crucial resources for the CCP during its formative years. Furthermore, Halliday suggests that Mao exploited economic hardships and crises to consolidate his power, using famine and resource scarcity as tools to eliminate rivals and enforce his authority. According to Halliday, Mao’s economic policies were less about genuine economic development and more about consolidating personal power through control over resources
2
Q
Social Divison
A
- Sun Yat-sen = president of the Chinese Republic established on 1 January 1912, resigned in March in favour of Yuan Shikai, who had the loyalty of military forces but ruled China as if he was an emperor announced in 1915. August 1912 the nationalist party Guomindang was formed, Sun = leader, GMD brought together Sun’s revolutionary league and other small parties.
- Shikai died in 1916, leaving China weak and divided.
- After Yuan’s death in 1916, warlordism (generals who commanded bands of soldiers terrorising peasants into giving them food and paying taxes).
- 1919 Treaty of Versailles gave former German concessions in Shandong China to Japan (GMD considered it a sign of a weak democratic government) resulted on a patriotic march of students in Beijing on 4 may 1919 (Mao took part) (May Fourth Movement), nationwide demonstrations 1925.
- Jiang Jieshi broke the First United Front with the CCP in 1927 (the white terror-purged communists in Shanghai, violently confronted union members, communists and peasant associations in Wuhan and Hunan)
- Jiang said that Japanese were “disease of the skin” and communist “disease of the heart”, after taking Shanghai turned against workers and their communist leaders, expelled GMD’s Russian advisers, the West (provided loans to keep communism out of China) and chinese business class approved such actions
- in July 1946 and GMD launched an offensive against the communist forces in Manchuria, civil war broke out (disagreements between Mao and Jieshi + nationalists’ attempt to reclaim Manchuria)
- The economic crisis in the countryside in the 1920s and 1930s created fertile ground for the Communist Party’s promise of land reform and social justice.” — Maurice Meisner. Maurice Meisner highlights the importance of ideological and social mobilization in Mao’s rise. He argues that Mao’s success was largely due to his ability to adapt Marxist-Leninist principles to the unique social conditions of China, particularly focusing on the peasantry.
- Jon Halliday, co-author with Jung Chang of “Mao: The Unknown Story,” presents a more critical perspective, emphasizing Mao’s manipulation and opportunism in leveraging social turmoil for his ascent. Halliday argues that Mao exploited existing social unrest and discontent to position himself as the leader of the Communist movement.
3
Q
Impact of war
A
- The Boxer rebellion of 1899-01 = the mass rebelions across the coountry towards the foreign presence, China fined 300 million dollars
- Full-scale attack on China in 1937 by the Japanese
- Jian Jieshi approaches CCP to for The Second United Front in 1937
- 1941 Jieshi broke the agreement by attacking communist forces in the south.
- USA and Britain attacked Japan after Pearl Harbour 1941, Jiang’s government was accused of depending on foreign allies (USA supplied aid, arms and advisers to Jieshi)
- CCP advertised itself as the only true Chinese patriot.
- Won continuously against the Japanese using guerrilla warfare from their experience from dealing with GMD in the late 1920s and early 1930s, thus becoming a more attractive options for the people compared to GMD
- Late 1930s to early 1940s red army increased from 50,000 to half a million
- 1945 Allies recognised the legitimacy of Jiang Jieshi’s governmnt (which controlled only a fraction of the country’s territory)
- Supported by peasantry who feared revenge of an area was recaptured by GMD, good reputation from the struggle with the Japanese, kept troops restrained, propaganda (targeted young), took steps to control prices, only controled Harbin, dealth harshly with those who didn’t conform
- Mao: personality cult, inspireed confidence, allowed field commanders to fight without interference, but insisted on defending a pass between China and Manchuria which failed, not good in dealing with foreign powers
- Guerrilla warfare maintained pressure, once troops trained in 1948 began conventional fighting, spring 1948 retook Yan’an (psychological boost), Lin Bao (tranformed PLA into a modern army, 1949 ranked second in the hierarchy) organised the army capturing transport links to isolate GMD in cities, but initially inferior in eqiupmment and numbers
- Mao’s personal charisma and his revolutionary zeal inspired a deep sense of loyalty among his followers, which was crucial for his consolidation of power.” — Lucian Pye
4
Q
Weakness of political system
A
- Qing dynasty unable to resolve poverty and resist increasing foreign influence in China.
- President Shikai 1913 called for an election, but the GMD won, so he banned GMD, 1914 shut down parliament and ruled like an emperor, 1915 failed to confront Japanese “Twenty-One Demands” (transfer of some German privileges in Shandong to Japan, Japanese right to exploit mineral resources in Manchuria)
- After Shikai’s death, a period of warlordism took place (1916-1928)
- Weak government in Beijing recognised by foreign powers
- Tried to establish popularity by joining the Allied in WWII, yet Japan was rewarded in the ToV, which infuriated the Chinese- which did not further bring popularity to the Beijing Government amongst the Chinese population.
- The May Forth Movement 1919 resulting from former German concessions in Shandong transferred to Japan
GMD: - Inefficiency, minimal reform, corruption, inflation and rationing, reliant on wealthy businessmen and landlords, not tried to build mass support, poor reputation from struggle against the Japanese,
- Jiang experienced, hard-working, confident, could be stubborn, inflexible, not good at delegation, relied on corrupt advisers, controlled military strategy
- Early advantages–Yan’an taken March 1947, sent best troops to Manchuria without securing northern and central China, lost Manchuria 1948, no retreats allowed, generals corrupt, troops in cities supplied by air, increasing surrenders without fighting.
- Jonathan Fenby states, “Chiang’s obsession with the Communists led to poor strategic decisions, diverting resources away from the fight against Japan and ultimately weakening his regime”
- Roderick MacFarquhar highlights, “The Nationalist government’s failure to control inflation eroded its economic base and alienated the urban middle classes who had initially supported it”
- The collapse of central authority in the late 1940s provided the Communist Party with an opportunity to mobilize support and consolidate power.” — Jonathan Spence
- Jung Chang and Jon Halliday: Chang and Halliday contend that the narrative of Nationalist weakness does not account for Mao’s own ruthless tactics and strategic manipulations. They write, “The weaknesses of the Nationalist regime were undoubtedly a factor, but Mao’s rise was also characterized by his brutal and often unscrupulous methods, which are sometimes glossed over in favor of a more simplistic narrative”
5
Q
Persuasion and coercion
A
- In 1931, Jiangxi Soviet was established and Mao became CCP party secretary and ordered land distribution: poorer peasants killed richer, those who disagreed = purged.
- Mao provided provisions, pay, all including himself shared the hardships, equality (no one can be threatened) but still ranks were obeyed, helped peasants unlike GMD army.
- In the Yan’an Soviet, Mao wrote a number of political and philosophical works, which helped him impose his personal authority. Peasants won over by land distribution and rent control (no mass killing of the rich), campaigns to improve literacy, stamp out corruption, homes, schools, hospitals and factories created in cliff caves and huts, improving the relationships with the peasants; gave women rights
- Mass meeting to help build support and increase the number of military recruits, peasants in “revolutionary committees”, Mao and communists - decision making
- The peasant revolution, driven by the grievances of the rural poor, was the cornerstone of Mao’s strategy to gain power.” — Philip Short
“In Yan’an, the CCP developed sophisticated propaganda techniques that were crucial in building Mao’s cult of personality.” — Michael Lynch
6
Q
Role of leader
A
The Long March (1934-1935)
* Settled in Yan’an Soviet, peasants won over by land distribution and rent control (no mass killing of the rich), campaigns to improve literacy, stamp out corruption, homes, schools, hospitals and factories created in cliff caves and huts, improving the relationships with the peasants,
* Mass meeting to help build support and increase the number of military recruits, peasants in “revolutionary committees”, Mao and communists - decision making
* Mao wrote a number of political and philosophical works here, which helped him impose his personal authority. A series of ‘rectification campaigns’ in 1942 removed an suspected disloyalty, as men and women were forced to confess to ‘crimes’ that went against Mao’s orders and beliefs, and were publicly stripped of possessions or posts.
* By 1943, the cult personality emerged as Mao adopted leadership roles as the Chairman of the CCP and the ideology was officially called “Mao Zedong’s Thought”
* “It was the Long March – and the legendary tales to which it gave rise – that provided this essential feeling of hope, the confidence that determined people could prevail under even the most desperate conditions” - Maurice Meisner
Civil War (1946-1949)
* Supported by peasantry who feared revenge of an area was recaptured by GMD, good reputation from the struggle with the Japanese, kept troops restrained, took steps to control prices, only controlled Harbin, dealt harshly with those who didn’t conform
* As sociologist Alessandro Russo summarizes, the peasant composition of the PLA hierarchy was a radical break with Chinese societal norms and “overturned the strict traditional hierarchies in unprecedented forms of egalitarianism”
* Mao: personality cult, inspired confidence, allowed field commanders to fight without interference,
* The Rectification Campaigns of the 1940s were marked by purges and coercion, reinforcing Mao’s authority within the Communist Party.” — Roderick MacFarquhar
7
Q
Ideology
A
- Peasant background
- introduced to Marxism at Beijing University in 1919,
- Believed that masses are a source of energy to transform China, because they are numerically stronger
- CCP congress in July 1921(encouraged by the Russian Comintern)
- Formulated his own ideology: adaptation of Marxism-Leninism, voluntaryism, mass mobilisation, self-criticism, two stage revolution explained in Mao’s On new democracy (1940) (first incorporate bourgeoisie when private ownership is allowed, second collectivisation and nationalisation and remove bourgeoisie elements), continuous revolution, ruthless determination (violence was necessary)
- Maurice Meisner: “Mao’s reinterpretation of Marxism to emphasize the revolutionary potential of the peasantry was a significant ideological innovation that shaped the course of the Chinese Revolution”
- Jung Chang and Jon Halliday: “Mao’s so-called Marxist-Leninist ideology was a façade that masked his ruthless pursuit of personal power and his willingness to use any means necessary to achieve his ends”
8
Q
Use of force
A
- 1930 the Futian incident (as he feared that his power was threatened) where 4,000 red army men were shot after their mutiny against Mao’s purge of the Jiangxi Action Committee who were accused of belonging to the Anti-Bolshevik League
- Jung Chang and Jon Halliday - 1931-1934 700,000 people died at the Ruijin (The Central Revolutionary base in Jiangxi-Fujian Soviet) base, half = class enemies, rest worked to death, or died from other causes attributable to the regime.
- The Yan’an Rectification movement, or Zhengfeng, ran from 1941 to 1944 : Self-criticism’ sessions at which everyone was encouraged to air the doubts and secrets. Not to speak at such a meeting brought even greater suspicion on an individual, but to air too many faults could lead to demotion and punishment. No outside press or radio communication was permitted to witness what was going on, and no letters could be sent to or received from the outside world
- Halliday views the Yan’an Rectification Campaigns as a brutal political purge aimed at consolidating Mao’s power within the Chinese Communist Party (CCP). These campaigns were not just about correcting ideological deviations but also about eliminating political rivals and dissenting voices within the party.
- Edgar Snow: Snow highlights Mao’s strategic use of force in achieving revolutionary goals. He states, “Mao’s use of force during the Long March and subsequent campaigns was seen as necessary for the survival and eventual triumph of the Communist movement”
9
Q
Propaganda
A
- Mao’s propaganda varied in themes such as communist ideals, anti-imperialism/anti-capitalism, family/social values
- Was usually spread through posters, media, schools, literature, music, etc.
Yan’an Soviet policies - Mass meeting to help build support and increase the number of military recruits, peasants in “revolutionary committees”, Mao and communists mutual decision making.
Civil War - Mao: personality cult, inspired confidence, allowed field commanders to fight without interference,
- Michael Lynch: Lynch criticizes the use of propaganda in Yan’an for its role in ideological indoctrination and the manipulation of the population. He argues that “the CCP’s extensive use of propaganda served to create an image of a utopian society, masking the harsh realities and enforcing ideological conformity”
- Edgar Snow: In his sympathetic account, Snow highlights how Mao used propaganda to inspire and mobilize the masses. He writes, “Mao’s use of simple, direct slogans and imagery helped to communicate complex ideas to a largely illiterate peasant population, fostering a sense of unity and purpose”
