Consolidation of Power

Question 1

Legal Methods

Answer 1

• Common Program: In 1949, the Chinese People’s Political Consultative Conference (CPPCC) adopted the Common Program, which served as an interim constitution. This program established the foundation for the new government, formalizing the leading role of the CPC and setting up the framework for governance.
• PLA Reorganization: The People’s Liberation Army (PLA) was reorganized under Mao’s leadership, ensuring that the military was loyal to him. Legal and institutional mechanisms were put in place to maintain the PLA’s alignment with the CPC’s objectives.
• “Black categories” = people with no political rights, subjects to the state law (Ex. Country landlords, big businessmen, ex-GMD supporters)
• Reactionary elements
• Feudal elements
• Lackeys of imperialism
• Bureaucratic elements
• Enemies of the people
• National bourgeoisie and petty bourgeoisie were given civil rights alongside peasants and workers to harness their experience, taxes limited private profit.
• Country was divided in 6 regions, each controlled by a bureau, as CCP’s power increased, non-communists were gradually expelled (processed increased by the Korean war as the reliability of non-communist was doubted)
• 1954 Constitution established his official power over the country
• The suppression of Counter-Revolution campaign 1950-51(GMD)
• Stuart Schram: Mao’s introduction of new legal frameworks and land reforms were crucial in consolidating Communist control and laying the foundation for socialist transformation”
  *Maurice Meisner: Meisner presents a balanced view, acknowledging the dual nature of Mao’s legal reforms. He states, “Mao’s legal measures, while often harsh and repressive, also aimed at restructuring Chinese society and economy, demonstrating a complex interplay between ideology and pragmatism”

Question 2

Use of force

Answer 2

• Anti-Landlord Campaign 1951-1952
• 1951 The Three-anti campaign: Corruption, Waste, bureaucratism before peasants. Managers, cadres, police officers and state officials were obligated to participate in public struggle sessions. Humiliation and group pressure to bring them into line
• 1952 Five-anti campaign: Bribery, Theft, Tax evasion, Cheating, Stealing (by government). Accused of these crimes faced fines, property confiscations and periods in labour camps few executed, 2-3 mil committed suicide due to shame and humiliation.
• Land Reform Movement 1949-1953
  
  • up to 2 million killed.
• Laogai “Reform through Labour” in 1949:
  
  • For crime
  • political
  • landlords
  • Harsh labour + re-education
  • more than 20 million deaths during Mao’s rule
• Jung Chang and Jon Halliday: Chang and Halliday provide a critical view of Mao’s use of force, emphasizing the brutality and immense human cost associated with his campaigns. They argue that Mao’s policies, such as the land reform campaigns and the Cultural Revolution, led to widespread suffering and loss of life.
  *Edgar Snow: Snow highlights Mao’s strategic use of force in achieving revolutionary goals. He states, “Mao’s use of force during the Long March and subsequent campaigns was seen as necessary for the survival and eventual triumph of the Communist movement”

Question 3

Charismatic leadership

Answer 3

• Long March 1934-35
• Posters and propaganda raising him to a god-like level: “Beloved Chairman Mao, we are loyal to you forever.” 1967 depicting Mao as the Sun
• The Little Red Book of his quotes in 1964 in 4 years 750 million sold: easily understood and remembered, provided answers to the possible questions among the population, provided guidance to the Red Guards during the Cultural Revolution
• 100 Flower Campaign 1956-57 when people were encouraged to criticise Mao and the government. Unexpected demands for power sharing led to the abrupt change of policy. By that time, Mao had witnessed Nikita Khrushchev denouncing Joseph Stalin and the Hungarian Revolution of 1956, events which he felt were threatening.
• Swimming the Yangtze in 1966, 73 years old, to show his strength in a difficult place to swim amidst the accusations of poor health and thus incompetence in government ruling.
• Edgar Snow and Lucian Pye: Snow portrays Mao as a charismatic and visionary leader who inspired dedication among his followers. He notes, “Mao’s personal charisma, combined with his ability to articulate the aspirations of the Chinese peasantry, made him a formidable revolutionary leader
• Jung Chang and Jon Halliday: They argue that Mao’s charisma was manipulated for personal gain and to enforce his absolute rule. They write, “Mao’s charisma was carefully cultivated and maintained through a combination of propaganda, fear, and the ruthless elimination of rivals”

Question 4

Dissemination of propaganda

Answer 4

Propaganda: Central Propaganda Department, central to communist rule:
* spread ideology, encourage activism, follow selfless model workers and soldiers such as Lei Feng,
* Struggles as Long March spread for inspiration
* especially during the Great Leap Forward of 1958 and the 1966-76 Cultural Revolution, PLA largest army (3.5 mil in 1953) in the world helped the indoctrination.
* William Bradbury claimed that the CCP implemented propaganda more massively, and more intensively than any other ruling group

Spread:
* Posters, media, education, literature, films etc.
* Disseminated by the workers of the local groups, committees, propaganda teems
* Emphasis on Political study groups, where everyone was persuaded of particular policies through the study of political articles
* Nationwide system of loudspeakers, reading newspapers was a political obligatory
* China Central television, People’s Daily (print) which were limited by censorship and were centralized

• Edgar Snow: In his sympathetic account, Snow highlights how Mao used propaganda to inspire and mobilize the masses. He writes, “Mao’s use of simple, direct slogans and imagery helped to communicate complex ideas to a largely illiterate peasant population, fostering a sense of unity and purpose”
• Jung Chang and Jon Halliday: They argue that Mao’s propaganda was manipulative and coercive. They state, “Mao’s propaganda machinery was relentless, portraying him as a near-divine figure and suppressing any dissenting views, thus maintaining his absolute power”

Question 5

Nature, extent and treatment of opposition

Answer 5

• Central investigation department with the CCP from 1949, a military intelligence wing of the PLA, and during the Cultural Revolution and the Central Case Examination Group was set up. From 1951, residence permits from 15 years old, special government department to file dangan on every suspect Chinese person. Autumn 1951 6,500 intellectuals and university professors were obliged to undertake courses in communist thinking, artists and writers who refused to support CCP were removed from after the struggle sessions.
• 1956 lifted censorship restrictions, 100 Flowers Campaign 1957: “Let a hundred flowers bloom” ⇒ Anti-Rightist Campaign (1957) Intellectuals, perceived as potential sources of dissent, faced severe repression. The Hundred Flowers Campaign initially encouraged intellectuals to voice their criticisms of the government but quickly turned into the Anti-Rightist Campaign, during which many intellectuals were persecuted for their expressed views. Half a million branded “rightist” and subjected to persecution, imprisonment, time in labour camos, readucation, public shootings, many commited suicide
• Cultural Revolution 1966-76: The Red Guards were mobilized to attack those labelled as “bourgeois” or “reactionary,” including teachers, intellectuals, and party officials. Many were subjected to public humiliation, beatings, imprisonment, and even execution.
• Labor Camps Opponents and those accused of counter-revolutionary activities were often sent to labor camps (Laogai) for “re-education through labor.”
• Chang and Halliday observed that struggle sessions ritualised public humiliation
• After criticising Mao and addressing the famine at the Lushan Conference in 1959, Peng Dehuai was removed as the defence minister
• The Anti-Rightist Campaign and the Cultural Revolution were devastating tools for Mao to eliminate opposition and reinforce his control.” — Frank Dikötter,
• Stuart Schram: Schram acknowledges that Mao’s campaigns against opposition were seen by some as necessary measures to consolidate the revolution. He writes, “To Mao and his supporters, the harsh treatment of counter-revolutionaries was a necessary step to secure the gains of the revolution and build a new socialist society”

Question 6

Impact of the success and/or failure of foreign policy

Answer 6

• Sino-Soviet Treaty in 1950:
  
  • Pressured into joining the Korean War
  • $300 million dollar loans, the treaty included provisions for economic aid and technical assistance from the Soviet Union to help China rebuild its war-torn economy. This included loans, industrial equipment, and expertise. between 1949-52 the value of industrial output doubled, 300 modern industrial plants were planned including factories for iron, steel, motor vehicles, and aircraft
  • Exposing Soviet Betrayals: Chinese propaganda highlighted instances where the Soviet Union allegedly betrayed or undermined Chinese interests. This included the withdrawal of Soviet experts and aid in 1960, which was depicted as an attempt to sabotage China’s development. The Chinese government emphasized that the USSR was acting out of self-interest rather than genuine socialist solidarity.
  • Salaries and Expenses of Advisors: While the Soviet Union did supply experts and advisors to assist with China’s development (10,000 in 1950), the PRC was generally responsible for the salaries and living expenses of these advisors
• Sino-Soviet split 1959-1961
  
  • Withdrawal of Soviet support in 1960
  • The pursuit of The Great Leap Forward increase the ideological rift as the Soviets did not believe that it is possible to achieve communism without socialism but Mao wanted to skip this step
• Cuban Missile Crises 1962:
  
  • Soviet Retreat: Mao viewed the resolution of the Cuban Missile Crisis, where the Soviet Union agreed to remove its missiles from Cuba in exchange for a U.S. promise not to invade Cuba and the secret removal of U.S. missiles from Turkey, as a sign of Soviet weakness. He saw Nikita Khrushchev’s willingness to negotiate and back down under U.S. pressure as a betrayal of revolutionary principles and a failure to stand firm against imperialism.
  • Deepening Split: The Cuban Missile Crisis exacerbated the already growing Sino-Soviet split. The ideological rift between the two countries widened as Mao used the crisis to argue that the Soviet Union could not be trusted to lead the global communist movement or to defend socialist countries against imperialist threats
• Relationship with the US 1950-70:
  
  • Continuing opposition towards the US
  • in 1970-76: decided on cooperation: Nixon’s Visit to China (1972): leading to the Shanghai Communiqué, which outlined the framework for future cooperation and mutual interests while acknowledging differences, which could prove beneficial for Mao in dealing with USSR
• Jung Chang and Jon Halliday: They argue that Mao’s foreign policies were often reckless and driven by personal ambition. They write, “Mao’s foreign adventures, including the border conflict with India and the strained relationship with the Soviet Union, were marked by ideological zeal rather than strategic thinking, leading to significant diplomatic isolation”
• Chen Jian: Jian highlights Mao’s success in establishing China as a major player in the Cold War. He states, “Mao’s decision to enter the Korean War, though costly, elevated China’s international standing and secured its role as a key actor in the bipolar world order”
• Mao’s intervention in the Korean War was a bold assertion of Chinese influence but strained the nation’s resources and complicated international relations.” — Chen Jian

Question 7

Aims and impact of domestic economic, political, cultural and social policies

Answer 7

**First Five-Year Plan (1953-1957):

Objectives and Implementation:

• The First Five-Year Plan aimed to transform China from an agrarian economy into an industrial powerhouse. With financial aid and advisors from the Soviet Union, China focused on building infrastructure and industrial capacity.
• Key projects included the construction of 595 large and medium-sized factories, railways, major roads, and new dams. These projects linked different parts of China, facilitating economic integration and development.
  Impact:
• Industrial productivity increased by 128%, and steel production rose from 1.35 million tons in 1953 to over 5 million in 1957. Coal extraction doubled, and agricultural yields of grain and cotton increased by over 30%.
• The plan’s success demonstrated China’s ability to undertake large-scale industrial projects and achieve rapid economic growth. It marked the beginning of China’s transition towards a modern industrial economy.
  **Great Leap Forward (1958-1962)

Objectives and Implementation:
Rural Poverty and Industrialization:

• Mao initiated the Great Leap Forward to rapidly transform China from an agrarian society into an industrialized socialist society. The goal was to boost agricultural and industrial production through collective labor and revolutionary zeal.
  Collectivization:
• The policy aimed to create 70,000 communes. These communes were large-scale collective farms that abolished private land ownership and pooled labor and resources. Agricultural production was organized collectively, disrupting traditional farming practices.
• By 1958, private farming was banned, and all households were forced into collective farming. Communes controlled all aspects of rural life, including food distribution, housing, and local governance.
  Industrialization:
• Mao emphasized small-scale industrial projects, most famously the backyard furnaces campaign. This initiative aimed to boost steel production by encouraging every commune to build and operate small furnaces.
• Approximately 600,000 backyard furnaces were constructed, with the hope that mass mobilization of labor could produce significant quantities of steel. However, this often led to the production of low-quality steel and wasted resources.
  Impact:
  Economic Disruptions:
• The large-scale collectivization disrupted traditional agricultural practices, leading to inefficiencies and reduced agricultural output. The focus on grain production resulted in neglect of other essential agricultural activities like pig breeding and vegetable growing.
• The backyard furnaces produced mostly unusable steel, diverting labor and resources away from productive agricultural and industrial activities.
  Famine:
• The Great Leap Forward resulted in one of the worst famines in human history. Poor planning, exaggerated production reports, and the diversion of resources from agriculture to industry led to widespread food shortages.
• The government took an increasing share of grain production (28% in 1958 compared to 17% the year before), exacerbating food shortages. The combination of government policies, natural disasters (drought and flooding), and poor planning led to the “Three Bitter Years” (1959-1961), with estimates of the death toll ranging from 15 to 45 million people. By 1959 grain production had fallen by 15-20% across the country

Yang Jisheng argued that Mao was unaware of the extent of the famine in 1959-61 due to the hyperbolization of grain and food production by the local party officials.

However, dikötter challenges this perspective claiming that Mao was aware of it by late 1958 citing a secret meeting in 1959 when Mao reportedly acknowledge the famine but said that it would be better for half the people to die so the other half could survive and support the Great Leap Forward.

Political and Social Consequences:

• Mao’s policies faced significant backlash within the Communist Party. In 1959, Mao resigned as the head of state, though he retained his position as Chairman of the Communist Party.
• Leaders like Liu Shaoqi and Deng Xiaoping took steps to mitigate the disaster, including reducing the size of communes, allowing some private farming, and reorganizing pay rates to account for effort and output. By 1962, 20% of the land was privately farmed again.
  Withdrawal of Soviet Support:
• The withdrawal of Soviet support in 1960, due to the Sino-Soviet split, left many industrial projects incomplete and contributed to economic difficulties. Factories were left half-built, and capital investments disappeared.
  Legacy:
  Long-Term Economic Effects:
• The Great Leap Forward severely damaged China’s economy and resulted in a significant loss of life. It created a legacy of distrust in large-scale government planning and contributed to later economic reforms.
• The failure of the Great Leap Forward led to a temporary shift in power within the Communist Party, with more pragmatic leaders like Liu Shaoqi and Deng Xiaoping implementing policies to recover the economy.
  Political Impact:
• Despite the failure, Mao maintained significant influence and later launched the Cultural Revolution in 1966 to reassert his ideological control over the party and the country.
• The Great Leap Forward’s disastrous outcomes highlighted the dangers of utopian economic policies and mass mobilization without adequate planning and realistic assessment.
  Frank Dikötter Estimated that at least 45 million people died unnecessarily during the Great Leap Forward. Criticized Mao for the policies that led to mass starvation and repression, describing the period as one of the worst man-made catastrophes in history.
  **The youth associations
• Youth League for 14-28 y.o. run by Lu Hao, and Youth Pioneers for 6-14, children wore red scarves like the blood shed by the revolutionaries.
• Students were among those criticising the regime during the Hundred `flowers campaign in 1956-57; hence red guards and “little Red Guards” were formed to reinvigorate the revolutionary fervour
• After being encouraged to destroy the 4 olds (Old Ideas, Old Culture, Old Customs, and Old Habits) in 1966, the youth took over the streets banging gongs and shouting slogans. Red Guards travlled across China spreading revolutionary ideas and destroying old culture. They smashing house doors, posessions, those who wore Western hairstyles and clothes were forced to wear gret Maoist baggy pants and tunics, even forcing the teachers, and paraded them through the streets to be spat at and insulted.

**Education

Aims
1) teaching many illiterate people to read and write, (2) training the personnel needed to carry on the work of political organization, agricultural and industrial production, and economic reform, and (3) remolding the behaviour, emotions, attitudes, and outlook of the people.
Ideological Reorientation
* Marxist-Leninist Curriculum: Mao emphasized the inclusion of Marxist-Leninist ideology in the curriculum. Education was seen as a tool to inculcate socialist values and loyalty to the Communist Party.
* Political Education: Schools incorporated political education and activities to promote revolutionary ideals. Textbooks and educational materials were revised to reflect communist ideology and glorify revolutionary heroes.
* Chinese characters were simplified for quicker learning (Pinyin). 1964 Committee for Reforming the Chinese Written Language released an official list of 2,238 simplified Chinese characters
* Literacy rates increased reaching 50% in 1960, 66% in 1964, and 70% by 1976
* 1957 most village children had primary education and the 3 times the number of secondary schools
* By 1976, 96% of 9-17 y.o. were in schools
* Education neither compulsory, nor free, never a budget priority
* Quality of education varied and bad in villages
* Emphasis on practical, anti-intellectualism of the regime, politically oriented criteria for admission to better schools and universities that hindered some individuals that China needed
* Schools - centres on indoctrination, cult of the leader
* During Cultural Revolution most schools and universities were closed down.

• Jonathan Spence: Spence acknowledges the improvements in literacy and education. He notes, “The expansion of basic education under Mao led to increased literacy rates and greater educational opportunities for the rural population”
• Frank Dikötter: Dikötter criticizes the indoctrination practices in schools, noting, “Students were subjected to relentless propaganda, with curricula centered around Mao’s teachings and Communist ideology, which discouraged independent thought and academic inquiry”

**Arts and Media China

• Traditional Chinese culture for Mao was bound with feudal and imperial society
• Writers and artists had to educate the masses
• 1950s, Chinese art was allowed to continue alongside more modern Soviet-inspired art with propagandist messages
• Old-style poetry permitted but younger poets were encouraged to write about agricultural and industrial achievements
• Plays and films were propagandists
• Literature was censored, only relevant to contemporary Chinese themes. Sales or possession of foreign literature–punished
• Libraries and museums were closed
• Western music (classic and popular) banned. Chinese opera depicted proletariat struggle over its class enemies
• Media was centralised
• Hundred Flowers campaign 1956-57 brought some freedom but the Cultural revolution of 1966-76 launched an anti-rightist campaign and persecution when Jing Qing was made the cultural purifier of the nation
• November 1965 the play “Hai Rui Dismissed from Office” – parallels to Mao’s dismissal of Peng Duhai, Yao Wenyuan wrote a fiece attack with Mao’s approval
• Yao Wenyuan and Jing Qing (mao’s wife) asserted that the struggle over the culture was part of the struggle between the classes.
• Lin Bao: “if the proletariat does not ccupy the positions in literature and art, the bourgeoisie certainly will”
• Allan Todd and Sally Waller: By 1970s, China became artistic wasteland, old culture destroyed and nothing of value arose to take its place
  Political policies

**Cultural Revolution (1966-1976)
* Objectives: To reassert Mao’s control, eliminate capitalist and traditional elements from Chinese society, and promote Maoist ideology.
Implementation:
* Red Guards: Millions of young people were mobilized as Red Guards to attack perceived enemies of the revolution.
* Persecution of Intellectuals: Many intellectuals, officials, and cultural figures were persecuted, sent to rural areas for re-education, or killed.
Impact:
* Cultural Destruction: Countless cultural artifacts, books, and historical sites were destroyed.
* Human Cost: Estimates of the death toll vary widely, with numbers ranging from hundreds of thousands to several million.
* Educational Disruption: Schools and universities were closed, and the education system was severely disrupted.

*	Roderick MacFarquhar: MacFarquhar points out the industrial achievements during the First Five-Year Plan. He notes, "The First Five-Year Plan marked a significant period of industrial growth, with substantial investments in heavy industry, leading to an increase in steel production, coal mining, and the establishment of new industrial bases"  *	The Great Leap Forward was a catastrophic policy, leading to widespread famine and showcasing the failures of Mao's domestic strategies." — Jasper Becker

Question 8

Impact of policies on women and minorities

Answer 8

**Women

• Female equality, Mao proclaiming: “Women hold up half the sky”
• Traditionally, women stayed at home, obeyed their menfolk, while practices of concubinage, foot binding and arranged marriages had given women a second-class status
• From 1950 practices of killing unwanted baby girls was officially abolished, foot binding outlawed, girls expected to go to school and women to work
• 1950 Marriage Law forbade arranged marriages and child betrothals, the payment of dowries and concubinage
• Divorce based on mutual consent or on the complaint of either husband or wife
• 1953 Election Law gave women the right to vote and some joined the government and the PLA
• A drive to curb prostitution
• 1950s same property rights as men
• Some women granted land in land distribution following the campaign against the landlords
• Communal practices (nurseries, eating, and cleaning) released women from traditional household chores
• Huge increase in the number of divorces (1.3 mil in 1953)
• Number of women in work increased from 8% to 32%, physically demanding jobs and had to act as mother (and fathers didn’t?)
• Alland Todd and Sally Waller: In rural and Muslim areas, government interference was resented and arranged marriages continued
• Women – 13% of party membership, and 14-23% of deputies in the National People’s Congress between 1954 and 1975
• Communes and schools taught children that love for Mao was more important than love for tehir families, undermined family unit. Young people encouraged to speak against their parents in the Four Olds campaign, outlawing of ancestor worship
• Initially communists favoured large families that swelled the population in 1950s. When famine came, 1-2 children were ideal, late marriage (25-27 for men, 23 for women) encouraged and large families were criticised, hence population grew slower (still, increased to 112 min between 1953-64 as death rates fell and birth rates remained high)
• Judith Shapiro: Shapiro also notes the impact of Mao’s policies on women’s emancipation. She writes, “The Marriage Law of 1950 and subsequent policies aimed at improving women’s status contributed to greater gender equality and social reform”
  **Minorities

“Black categories” = people with no political rights, subjects to the state law (Ex. Country landlords, big businessmen, ex-GMD supporters)

• Reactionary elements
• Feudal elements
• Lackeys of imperialism
• Bureaucratic elements
• Enemies of the people
  • non-Han ethnicities including Tibetans (lama Buddhist), Uighurs (Muslim), Hui Muslims and Mongols were persecuted
  • Tibet was forced in PRC in 1950 and its Buddhist Culture was suppressed.
  • Four hundred ethnic groups identified themselves and were put under military supervision and forced to accept communist rule. 1954 Constitution recognized the existence of ethnic minorities and created autonomous regions, prefectures, and counties for them. These areas were granted certain administrative rights to preserve their cultural and social practices.
  • From 1959 the oppression of religious minorities increased.
  • Tibetans forced to grow wheat and maize and herders were made to farm high grounds at the expense of their yaks. Cut supplies of milk, cheese, meat and yak hair supplies, which was used for clothes and tents, provoking a famine, 1/4 of population died.
  • In 1974, PLA forced the closure of mosques and burned religious books in Shadian Town. 7,200 Hui people seized PLA barracks and 10,000-strong force of PLA soldiers in July 1975 who used guns, cannon and aerial bombardment, within a week, 1000 Huis were killed and 4,400 homes destroyed.
• Communist view was that religion was a capitalist invention, Mao was hostile to religion, labelling it a “poison”, which led to the closure of churches, temples shrines and monasteries. If religious establishments agreed to preach communist ideas, they could even receive state money. During the Cultural revolution religion was one of the “four olds”
  
  • Mao deemed religion as something belonging to the past and used to keep the lower classes in their place with promises of a better afterlife. No public worship or ceremony was allowed after the wreckage of Buddha in the Summer Palace in Beijing. Temples, churches, religious images and shrines were destroyed everywhere.

Question 9

Authoritarian control and the extent to which it was achieved

Answer 9

Mao meets the requirements for authoritarianism (never elected or plebiscite, came to power through Civil War, but given China’s political past and popularity in wartime, this can be taken as a sign of popular support)
* No room for individual thought, blind submission
* One-part state, no elected authorities at the national state, power concentrated in the hands of National People’s Congress (represented the party and acted according to Mao)
* Mao exercised power arbitrarily according to the ideological beliefs
* No political or civil rights
* Traditional legal bodies dispensed and almost no opposition
* Who did not comply were sent to labour camps or prisons or struggle sessions, and taken their privileges
* Control over the media and the army
* Some pluralism for ethnic minorities, although state sanctioned

*Elizabeth Perry: Perry provides a more nuanced analysis, acknowledging areas of resistance and the limits of state control. She writes, “While Mao’s regime achieved significant control, there were instances of local resistance and non-compliance, particularly in rural areas where traditional practices persisted”
*Frank Dikötter: Dikötter supports this view, noting the extent of state control over society. He states, “Mao’s regime exercised extensive control over the population, with the Communist Party penetrating all areas of life, from the economy to personal relationships”
– However, removal from public life in 1959-62 accompanied by his own self-criticism and the power wielded by the Gang of Four (jiang Qing, Zhang Chunqiao, Yao Wenyuan, Wang Hognwen )in the last years of the regime (1976), show that Mao’s control varied in intensity
- Failed at mobilising the whole country for the national pursuit, size of the country and limited control of the Red Guards, hence limited authoritarian apparatus, made authoritarian government difficult to achieve