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MCAT 2015 > Embryogenesis and Development > Flashcards

Embryogenesis and Development Flashcards

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1
Q

ampulla

A

widest part of the fallopian tube where fertilization usually occurs

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2
Q

acrosomal apparatus

A

once first sperm comes into direct contact with the secondary oocyte’s cell membrane it forms this tubelike structure which extends to and penetrates the cell membrane

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3
Q

cortical reaction

A

after penetration of the sperm through the cell membrane, a release of calcium ions occurs
these ions depolarize the membrane of the ovum
- prevents fertilization of the ovum by multiple sperm cells
increased Ca+ concentration increases the metabolic rate of the newly formed diploid zygote

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4
Q

fertilization membrane

A

depolarized and impenetrable membrane of the diploid zygote

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5
Q

dizygotic

A

fraternal twins
form from fertilization of two different eggs released during one ovulatory cycle by two different sperm
each will implant in uterine wall and each develops its own placenta, chorion, and amnion
placentas may fuse if zygotes implant close together

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6
Q

monozygotic

A

identical twins
form when a single zygote splits into two
because genetic material is identical, so too will be the genomes of the offspring
type of twinning occurs as a result of when separation occurred

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7
Q

conjoined twins

A

incomplete division of monozygotic twins, results in two offspring which are physically attached at some point

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8
Q

cleavage

A

process in which zygote undergoes rapid mitotic cell divisions in moving to uterus for implantation
first one officially creates embryo, nullifies one of zygote’s defining characteristics: unicellularity
several rounds of mitosis occur, but total size of embryo remains unchanged during first few divisions
divides into progressively smaller cells, increasing nuclear-to-cytoplasmic (N:C) ratio and surface area-to-volume ratio
cells achieve increased area for gas and nutrient exchange relative to overall volume
two types: indeterminate and determinate

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9
Q

indeterminate cleavage

A

results in cells that can still develop into complete organisms
i.e. why monozygotic twins have identical genomes

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10
Q

determinate cleavage

A

results in cells with fates that are already determine

cells are committed to differentiating into a certain type of cell

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11
Q

morula

A

solid ball of cells that results from the early stages of cleavage in an embryo
undergoes blastulation

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12
Q

blastula

A

hollow ball of cells with fluid-filled inner cavity
in mammals, consists of two cell groups: trophoblast and inner cell mass
moves through the fallopian tube to the uterus, where it burrows into the endometrium

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13
Q

blastocoel

A

fluid-filled inner cavity of blastula

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14
Q

blastulation

A

formation of the blastula from the morula

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15
Q

blastocyst

A

mammalian blastula

consists of two cell groups: trophoblast and inner cell mass

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16
Q

trophoblast cells

A

surround the blastocoel and give rise to the chorion and later the placenta
specialized to create an interface between the maternal blood supply and the developing embryo
form chorionic villi

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17
Q

inner cell mass

A

protrudes into the blastocoel and gives rise to the organism itself

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18
Q

chorion

A

formed from trophoblasts
extraembryonic membrane that develops into the placenta
also forms an outer membrane around amnion, adding an additional level of protection

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19
Q

chorionic villi

A

formed from trophoblasts
microscopic fingerlike projections that penetrate the endometrium
develop into the placenta, support maternal-fetal bas exchange

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20
Q

umbilical cord

A

connects embryo and placenta
consists of two arteries and one vein encased in a gelatinous substance
vein carries freshly oxygenated blood rich with nutrients from placenta to embryo
arteries carried deoxygenated blood and waste to placenta for exchange

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21
Q

yolk sac

A

supports embryo until placenta is functional

site of early blood cell development

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22
Q

allantois

A

extraembryonic membrane
involved in early fluid exchange between the embryo and yolk sac
umbilical cord formed from remnants of this and yolk sac

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23
Q

amnion

A

extraembryonic membrane
surrounds allantois
thin, tough membrane filled with amniotic fluid, which serves as shock absorber during pregnancy, lessening impact of maternal motion on developing embryo

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24
Q

gastrulation

A

generation of three distinct cell layers

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25
Q

gastrula

A

small invagination in the blastula
cells continue moving toward the invagination, resulting in elimination of the blastocoel
membranes merge, resulting in a tube through the middle

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26
Q

archenteron

A

membrane invagination of the blastocoel

later develops into the gut

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27
Q

blastopore

A 
opening of the archenteron
in deuterostomes (i.e. humans), develops into the anus
in protostomes, develops into the mouth
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28
Q

primary germ layers

A

some cells migrate into what remains of blastocoel

ectoderm, mesoderm, endoderm

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29
Q

ectoderm

A

outermost primary germ layer
gives rise to integument, including epidermis, hair, nails, and epithelia of nose, mouth, and lower anal canal
lens of eye, nervous system (including adrenal medulla), and inner eye also derived from this

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30
Q

mesoderm

A

middle primary germ layer
develops into several different systems including the musculoskeletal, circulatory, and most of the excretory systems
also gives rise to the gonads, as well as the muscular and connective tissue layers of the digestive and respiratory systems and the adrenal cortex

31
Q

endoderm

A

innermost primary germ layer
forms epithelial linings of the digestive and respiratory tracts, including the lungs
pancreas, thyroid, bladder, and distal urinary tracts, as well as parts of the liver, derived from this

32
Q

selective transcription

A

how cells with the same genes are able to develop into such distinctly different cell types with highly specialized functions
only the genes needed for a particular cell are transcribed
related to induction

33
Q

induction

A

related to selective transcription
ability of one group of cells to influence the fate of other nearby cells
mediated by chemical substances (inducers)
ensures proximity of different cell types that work together within an organ

34
Q

inducers

A

mediate induction
diffuse from the organizing cells to the responsive cells
responsible for processes such as the guidance of neuronal axons

35
Q

neurulation

A

development of the nervous system

begins once the three germ layers are formed

36
Q

notochord

A

rod of mesodermal cells
forms along the long axis of the organism like a primitive spine
induces a group of overlying ectodermal cells to slide inward to form neural folds, which surround a neural groove

37
Q

neural folds

A

grow toward one another until they fuse into a neural tube

38
Q

neural tube

A

forms from fusion of neural folds

gives rise to the central nervous system

39
Q

neural crest cells

A

at the tip of each neural fold
migrate outward to form the peripheral nervous system (including the sensory ganglia, autonomic ganglia, adrenal medulla, and Schwann cells), as well as specific cell types in other tissues (such as calcitonin-producing cells of the thyroid, melanocytes in the skin, and others)

40
Q

teratogens

A

substances that interfere with development, causing defects or even death of the developing embryo
each does not have the same effect on every embryo or fetus
genetics, route of exposure to, length of exposure to, rate of placental transmission of, and exact identity of all affect outcome
i.e. alcohol, prescription drugs, viruses, bacteria, and environmental chemicals (polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons)

41
Q

determination

A

commitment of a cell to having a particular function in the future
prior to this, the cell can become any cell type
after this, the cell is committed to a specific lineage
multiple pathways:
- asymmetric splitting of cell–presence of specific mRNA and protein molecules may result in this
- may occur due to secretion of specific molecules from nearby cells (morphogens)

42
Q

morphogens

A

may cause nearby cells to follow a particular developmental pathway

43
Q

differentiation

A

changes in structure, function, and biochemistry of the cell to match the cell type once determined

44
Q

stem cells

A

cells that have not yet differentiated, or which give rise to other cells that will differentiate
exist in embryonic tissues as well as in adult tissues

45
Q

potency

A

determines the tissues a particular stem cell can differentiate into
spectrum, not a series of strict definitions

46
Q

totipotent

A

cells with the greatest potency, include embryonic stem cells
can ultimately differentiate into any cell type, either in the fetus or in the placental structures

47
Q

pluripotent

A

can differentiate into any cell type except for those found in the placental structures

48
Q

multipotent

A

can differentiate into multiple types of cells within a particular group

49
Q

responder

A

cell that is induced

to be induced, must be competent, or able to respond to the inducing signal

50
Q

autocrine signals

A

act on the same cell that secreted the signal in the first place

51
Q

paracrine signals

A

act on cells in the local area

52
Q

juxtacrine signals

A

do not usually involve diffusion, but rather feature a cell directly stimulating receptors of the adjacent cell

53
Q

endocrine signals

A

involve secreted hormones that travel through the bloodstream to a distant target tissue

54
Q

growth factors

A

peptides that promote differentiation and mitosis in certain tissues (inducers)
only function on specific cell types or in certain areas, as determined by the competence of these cells

55
Q

reciprocal development

A

induction not always a one-way pathway

56
Q

apoptotic blebs

A

self-contained pieces of a cell that are formed when cell undergoes apoptosis
can be digested by other cells, which allows for recycling of materials
contained by a membrane, which prevents the release of potentially harmful substances into extracellular environment

57
Q

necrosis

A

process of cell death in which a cell dies as a result of injury
internal substances can be leaked, causing irritation of nearby tissues, or even an immune response

58
Q

regenerative capacity

A

ability of an organism to regrow certain parts of the body

varies from species to species

59
Q

complete regeneration

A

lost or damaged tissues are replaced with identical tissues

i.e. salamanders, newts

60
Q

incomplete regeneration

A

implies that the newly formed tissue is not identical in structure or function to the tissue that has been injured or lost
(i.e. humans)

61
Q

senescence

A

biological aging

occurs as changes in both molecular and cellular structure accumulate and can occur at the cellular or organismal level

62
Q

telomeres

A

ends of chromosomes
when shortened, may lead to aging of cells
prevent loss of genetic info and help prevent DNA from unraveling
difficult to replicate

63
Q

fetal hemoglobin (HbF)

A

exhibits a greater affinity for oxygen than does maternal (adult) hemoglobin (primarily HbA)
assists with the transfer (and retention) of oxygen into the fetal circulatory system

64
Q

umbilical arteries

A

carry blood away from the fetus toward the placenta

carry deoxygenated blood

65
Q

umbilical vein

A

carries blood toward the fetus from the placenta

carries oxygenated blood

66
Q

shunts

A

developing child’s body constructs three of these to actively direct blood away from lungs (foramen oval, ductus arteriosus) and liver (ductus venosus) because underdeveloped and sensitive to high blood pressures

67
Q

foramen ovale

A

one-way valve that connects right atrium to left atrium
allows blood entering right atrium from inferior vena cava to flowing left atrium instead of right ventricle, and thereby be pumped through the aorta into systemic circulation directly

68
Q

ductus arteriosus

A

shunts leftover blood from pulmonary artery to the aorta

blood pushed into systemic circulation

69
Q

ductus venosus

A

used to bypass liver

shunts blood returning from placenta via umbilical vein directly to inferior vena cava

70
Q

fetus

A

by end of eight weeks

most of organs have formed, brain is fairly developed

71
Q

contractions

A

coordinated by prostaglandins and peptide hormone oxytocin

72
Q

afterbirth

A

placenta and umbilical cord expelled

73
Q

3 phases of childbirth

A
  1. cervix thins out and amniotic sac ruptures (water breaking)
  2. strong uterine contractions result in birth of fetus
  3. placenta and umbilical cord expelled (afterbirth)

MCAT 2015 (66 decks)

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